Week 2: Behavioural, Need and Cognitive Theories

Question 1

What are the three overarching motivational schools and their respective theories?

Answer 1

1. Behavioural Theories - Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory
2. Need Theories - Hierarchy of Needs, 2-Factor Theory, Acquired Needs Theory, Self-Determination, Cognitive Evaluation
3. Cognitive Theories - Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory, Regulatory Focus Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Social Learning Theory

Question 2

What is the main behavioural theory?

Answer 2

Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory

Question 3

According to Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory, you learn behaviour in two ways. What are they?

Answer 3

Reinforcement: providing rewards for desired behaviour
Punishment: administer punishment for undesired behaviour

Question 4

Why is positive or negative reinforcement effective in Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory?

Answer 4

It strengthens a response and increases the probability of repetition

Question 5

Why is punishment and extinction effective in Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory?

Answer 5

it weakens the behaviour and decreases its frequency

Question 6

In Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory, what is the best technique to use in the workplace and why?

Answer 6

Research suggests that reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment, because

1) punished behaviours tends to be temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed
2) punishment may also produce undesirable side effects like suffering relationships

Question 7

How can managers motivate employees to behave in ways that will benefit the organisation? Base your answers on Skinners Operant Conditioning Theory.

Answer 7

one way is shaping behaviours by systematically reinforcing each successive step towards a desired response

example: an employee always turns up 30 minutes late and one day he turns up only 20 minutes late. A manager can reinforce the improvement as the behaviour is now more closely to the desired behaviour.

Question 8

What are the five need theories?

Answer 8

Hierarchy of Needs
2 Factor 
Acquired Needs
Self-Determination
Cognitive evaluation theory

Question 9

Which theory is best known among the need theory, yet does not receive a lot of support?

Answer 9

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Question 10

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory there are 5 hierarchical needs in every human being and in the workplace. Name them in the right order from bottom to top.

Answer 10

Lower Order and External:

1. Physiological need
2. Safety need

Higher Order and Internal:

3. Social need
4. Esteem need
5. Self-Actualisation need

Question 11

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, what do the higher order needs entail?

Answer 11

3. Social: interpersonal relations, parties
4. Esteem: promotions, recognition
5. Self-Actualisation: using abilities to the fullest potential

Question 12

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, what do the lower order needs entail?

Answer 12

1. Physiological: basic pay level to pay for rent and food

2. Safety: job security, health insurance

Question 13

According to Maslow, as each need is satisfied, the next need becomes more ____. That means that the lowest level of unmet needs in the hierarchy…

Maslow suggests that in order to motivate someone, you therefore need to focus on….

Answer 13

dominant
is the prime motivator

satisfying the needs at or above the level the person currently at

Question 14

How is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory flawed?

Answer 14

he delivered no empirical substantiation for the theory

Question 15

Leaning on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, later research has shown that in the global economy, employees in different countries may have different needs and can therefore be motivated in different way.

Name four examples of this.

Answer 15

1. people in greece and japan are especially motivated by safety needs
2. sweden, norway and denmark are especially motivated by belongingness needs
3. in developing countries, physiological and safety needs may be expected to be important motivators
4. conversely, in wealthy countries, esteem and self-actualisation needs may be expected to be more important motivators

Question 16

In Herzbergs 2-Factor theory, there are two constructs leading to either satisfaction or dissatisfaction. What are those two constructs and why can they not be one dimension?

Answer 16

Hygiene factors: the continuum between no dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction

Motivators: the continuum between no satisfaction and satisfaction

They should not be seen as one because the absence of e.g. hygiene factors does not automatically mean a person is satisfied

Question 17

Name three examples of Hygiene factors (2-Factor Theory)

Answer 17

company policies, salaries, work conditions

Question 18

Name three examples of Motivators factors (2-Factor Theory)

Answer 18

growth, responsibility, achievement

Question 19

According to Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory, satisfying ____ will not increase motivation, but focussing on ____ will.

Answer 19

hygiene factors, work itself

Question 20

Why has Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory been criticised?

Answer 20

mainly due to flawed methodology

Question 21

In what two ways does Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory contribute to motivational research?

Answer 21

1. it helped researchers focus their attention on the important distinction between intrinsic (motivator needs) and extrinsic motivation (hygiene needs)
2. his theory promoted researchers and managers to study how jobs could be designed or redesigned so they are intrinsically motivating

Question 22

How did Herzberg come to his results on the 2-Factor Theory?

Answer 22

he asked people to describe in detail situations when they had felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs and categorised them according to extreme satisfaction and extreme dissatisfaction

Question 23

According to McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, a person has one of three main motivations that drive their being. What are they?

Answer 23

1. Need for Achievement (nAch)
2. Need for Power (nPow)
3. Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Question 24

In McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, the Need for Achievement (nAch) is peoples driving motivation to ____, to perform _____, and to meet _____.

People with high need for achievement will avoid ___ risk activities with ____ chance of gain and will avoid ____ risk activities ____ potential to failure.

Answer 24

excel, perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards of excellence

low, no
high, high

Question 25

In McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory, the Need for Power (nPow) describes a persons need to ____. Those with power as their primary motivation don't care for approval or recognition, they just want _____ and ____.

Answer 25

control or influence others agreement and compliance

Question 26

In McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory the Need for Affiliation (nAff) describes those who seek out ... Those with affiliation as their primary motivation looks for ____. They tend to ___, shy away from standing out, and may need ____ and ____.

Answer 26

friendly and close interpersonal relationships harmony conform, approval and recognition

Question 27

What makes a good leader, based on McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory?

Answer 27

those with high need for power and low need for affiliation are linked to managerial success as caring about whether you are liked or not will become problematic in decision-making

Question 28

How much empirical support does McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory get?

Answer 28

a lot, it has the best research support of the last three theories (2-factor, hierarchy of needs, self-determination) but it is not easy to measure

Question 29

According to the Self-Determination theory, employees are motivated by what three needs?

Answer 29

Need for autonomy Need for competence Need for relatedness

Question 30

In the Self-Determination theory, the need for autonomy means what?

Answer 30

to have control and not be constantly monitored

Question 31

In the Self-Determination theory, the need for competence means what?

Answer 31

to have a sense of mastery over your job

Question 32

In the Self-Determination theory, the need for relatedness means what?

Answer 32

to feel connected to others

Question 33

According to the Self-Determination theory, the need for autonomy is most important for ____ and ____ outcomes. The need for competence is most predictive of ____.

Answer 33

attitudinal, affective performance

Question 34

The Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a derivative of what other need theory?

Answer 34

Self-Determination Theory

Question 35

According to the Cognitive Evaluation Theory, the need for autonomy (SDT Theory) can be impeded by what? What does that mean?

Answer 35

extrinsic rewards allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that is intrinsically motivated tends to decrease the overall level of motivation IF the rewards are seen as controlling e.g. if you start paying volunteers, they won't want to do it anymore

Question 36

What are the five cognitive theories?

Answer 36

expectancy, equity, regulatory focus, goal-setting, social learning

Question 37

Behavioural motivation theories assume that all behaviours are learned through ____, which occurs through interaction with and stimuli from ____.

Answer 37

conditioning, the environment

Question 38

Need motivation theories explain why _____

Answer 38

a person must act, but without explanation of why actions are chosen

Question 39

Cognitive motivation theories understand employee's motivation by _____.

Answer 39

understanding their thought processes

Question 40

Vrooms Expectancy Theory is the basis of which leadership theory?

Answer 40

House and Dressler's Path-Goal theory

Question 41

What is the main idea in Vrooms Expectancy Theory ?

Answer 41

1. expectancy: individual effort will lead to good performance (appraisal) 2. instrumentality: a good performance (appraisal) will lead to organisational rewards that are 3. valence: valued by the employee 4. Organisational rewards will go in line with and lead to the fulfilment of personal goals

Question 42

What is the effect when one of the relationships in Vrooms Expectancy Theory is hurt?

Answer 42

motivation suffers

Question 43

Explain why some employees have low motivation and use Vrooms Expectancy Theory to support your answer.

Answer 43

Some employees may have low motivation since 1. expectancy: maximum effort doesn't necessarily lead to good performance appraisals 2. instrumentality: good performance appraisal doesn't necessarily lead to rewards 3. valence: organisational rewards are not always personally attractive

Question 44

Under which circumstances can Vrooms Expectancy theory work?

Answer 44

1. Its more valid in situations where effort-performance and performance rewards linkages are clearly perceived by the individual. Path-goal makes sure to point out these relationships and makes sure they are met and valued. 2. If individuals were actually rewarded for performance rather than for example seniority or job difficulty, expectancy theory might be more valid

Question 45

In Adams Equity Theory, motivation is determined by?

Answer 45

our perception of how fair the input/output ratio is compared to a referent

Question 46

In Adams Equity Theory, employees compare their ratios of input-output outcomes with those of a referent such as

Answer 46

a similar other, previous self (in an old job) and ones own expectations

Question 47

In Adams Equity Theory, input-output fairness is determined by _____. When ratios are equal, a state of _____ exists, and the situation is considered _____. When ratios are unequal, _____ exists due to _____.

Answer 47

social comparisons with a referent equity, fair tensions, inequity

Question 48

Sophie is contributing just as much as her colleague, but gets more outcomes. Sophie is experiencing ______ according to Adams Equity Theory.

Answer 48

overpayment inequity

Question 49

Daniel is contributing more input as his colleague, but gets the same outcomes. According to Adams Equity Theory, Daniel is experiencing ______.

Answer 49

underpayment inequity

Question 50

Sophie is contributing more input than Daniel, but also gets more outcomes than him. She is experiencing _____.

Answer 50

equity

Question 51

In Adams Equity Theory, under-rewarded states cause ____, while over-rewarded states cause ____.

Answer 51

anger, guilt

Question 52

According to Adams Equity Theory, what should you do when you feel like motivation is down?

Answer 52

people are sensitive to equity and fairness, so explore weather equity unfairness is the cause of it and restore a balance

Question 53

In what four ways do employees react when they perceive unfairness?

Answer 53

1. they change their input or output (less/more effort and lower/higher quality) 2. they distort perceptions of self or the referent (maybe my performance isn't good or maybe her job isn't as easy as i thought it was) 3. choose a different referent (nevertheless i am still doing much better than my neighbour) 4. leave the field

Question 54

According to Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, people are motivated to either ______ and/or ______.

Answer 54

avoid pain (prevention focus) approach pleasure (promotion focus)

Question 55

Higgins Regulatory Focus theory leans on what principle?

Answer 55

the hedonic principle

Question 56

In Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, Promotion-oriented people are driven by _____. They are sensitive towards _____ outcomes and find success and pleasure in ____. They feel pain and like they failed when they are confronted with _____. Promotion-oriented people are characterised by _____.

Answer 56

``` overarching goal: accomplishment positive gains non-gains eagerness ```

Question 57

In Higgins Regulatory Focus theory, Prevention-oriented people are driven by _____. They are sensitive towards _____ outcomes and find success and pleasure in ____. They feel pain and like they failed when they are confronted with _____. Prevention-oriented people are characterised by _____.

Answer 57

``` overarching goal: safety negative non-losses losses vigilance/anxiousness ```

Question 58

Are Higgins Regulatory Focuses (promotion/prevention orientation) chronic or situational?

Answer 58

both, they can always be the same for one person, suggesting you are born with it or they can be situational, depending on the situation

Question 59

Prevention-oriented people need ____ in Higgins Regulatory Focus theory.

Answer 59

clearly achievable goals

Question 60

Promotion-oriented people need ____ and ____ in Higgins Regulatory Focus theory.

Answer 60

challenge, learning

Question 61

According to Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory, one needs what to achieve higher performance?

Answer 61

specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback (rather than vague goals with no feedback) under the condition that the person accepts the goal

Question 62

In Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory, why do the goals need to be challenging?

Answer 62

because they 1. focus and direct attention 2. energise the person to work harder in order to attain goals 3. help to increase persistence 4. force people to find better and more efficient strategies

Question 63

In Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory, long-term goals provide ____, while short-term goals provide ____.

Answer 63

direction (vision, strategy, e.g. successful career) | drive (KPIs, e.g. pass master)

Question 64

In Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory, the relationship between specific and difficult goals and performance is moderated by what five variables?

Answer 64

``` (self-generated) feedback goal commitment goal importance self-efficacy task complexity ```

Question 65

In Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory, what happens after one has achieved a certain goal/performance?

Answer 65

If one is satisfied with the results, the willingness to commit to new challenges goes up (which again influences how strong the moderators will be in the next challenge -> self-efficacy)

Question 66

Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory works differently in other cultures. In cultures with higher power distances, _____ goals are more motivating.

Answer 66

moderate

Question 67

Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory describes 4 mechanisms that can also influence the strength of relationship between difficult, specific goals and performance outcomes. What are they?

Answer 67

Choice/Direction Effort Persistence Strategies

Question 68

How is Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory often put into practice?

Answer 68

one way is management by objectives (MBO)

Question 69

Management by objectives (MBO) describes 4 levels on which objectives are set. What are they?

Answer 69

Overall organisational objectives Divisional objectives Departmental objectives Individual objectives

Question 70

In management by objectives one translates _____ into specific objectives for each ____. One has to assure company-wide _____ and _____ of goals, vision, etc.

Answer 70

oVerall objectives, level linearity, proportion

Question 71

Four ingredients are common to management by objectives programs. What are they?

Answer 71

1. goal specificity 2. participation in decision-making 3. explicit time periods to attain goals 4. performance feedback

Question 72

Bandura's Social Learning Theory is based what other cognitive theory?

Answer 72

Locke and Lathams' Goal-Setting Theory

Question 73

In Bandura's Social Learning Theory, we learn through what?

Answer 73

observation and direct experience, hence SOCIAL learning theory we learn to do something by seeing someone else do it and gain the reward we value

Question 74

In Bandura's Social Learning Theory, those with high ____ will perform better and respond better to negative feedback. _____ is the core element of both this theory and also complements goal-setting theory in a way that increased _____ leads to setting higher goals, which again leads to better performance.

Answer 74

self-efficacy self-efficacy, confidence

Question 75

In Bandura's Social Learning Theory, one can increase self-efficacy in four ways, what are they?

Answer 75

1. inactive mastery: gaining experience 2. vicarious modelling: see someone else do the task 3. verbal persuasion: someone convinces you of your skill 4. arousal: getting energised and hyped (like athletes)

Question 76

Why is Bandura's Social Learning Theory not a behavioural, but a cognitive theory?

Answer 76

because it takes ones thought processes into account, not just conditioning and stimuli from the environment

Question 77

higher self-efficacy is positively related to what three other variables?

Answer 77

greater confidence greater persistence in the face of difficulty better response to negative feedback

Question 78

The intent-behaviour gap describes the gap between what people ______ and what people _____. This is often cause by ____ and ____ and a lack of ____. To decrease the gap, one should formulate appropriate ______, such as 'if situation x arises, i will perform response y'.

Answer 78

say they want (and think they are doing); actually do goal-setting paradox, procrastination, self-efficacy implementation intentions

Question 79

Implications for managers (summary): 1. _____ wanted behaviours, aim to avoid _____. 2. pay attention to the _____ of your followers, help them satisfy their most _____ one. 3. reward, promote and treat followers fairly, based on their ____ and ____. 4. set ____ and ____ goals, taking into account what type of goal _____ them the most. 5. believe in your people and communicate this to increase _____ among them.

Answer 79

1. reinforce, punishment 2. needs, dominant 3. contribution, effort 4. specific, challenging, motivates 5. self-efficacy

Question 80

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Answer 80

positive reinforcement is giving a reward for desired behaviour negative reinforcements taking a bad consequence away when desired behaviour is shown (like removing restrictions from a well-behaving teenager)

Question 81

What theory is oftentimes seen in parenting?

Answer 81

Skinners operant conditioning theory (behavioural theory)