3 key choices when using result controls
- Which (combination of) PM to use?
- Which target to set on each PM (and how should the target be set)
- Which incentives should be linked to PM outcomes (and how strong should each incentive be)?
What 3 things are very important for budgets?
- Budgets should be strongly linked with strategic and operational planning
- Budgeting should facilitate learning
- Budget deviations during the year prompt analysis
To what is budget expecilitly related, and what problem is there?
Budget is explicitly linked to plans and goals, but budget is somewhat disconnected from these.
What are the (dis)advantages of lower-level budget particiapation?
- Specialized knowledge, managers need lower-level information
- Build commitment towards budgeting process.
- Downside budgetary slack (if budget used for incentive compensation)
Why do budgeted numbers and targets differ?
Budgets aim for realism while targets should be effort-inducing
Which 3 information sources are used to set targets?
- Past performance (good performance is bonus, but also higher target)
- Peer performance (compared to other managers, do all not meet it or only you?)
- Other sources (customer satisfaction)
What is target ratcheting?
adjusting future targets based on current performance. Is current performance fully incorporated in next-period target revision?
How do you determine the target difficulty?
By the percentage of managers who attain targets (this is the same question as how much the target should be adjusted)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of target ratcheting?
Advantages:
1. Challenging targets may induce higher effort
2. Same performance is not rewarded multiple times
Disadvantage:
- strategic behavior (ratchet effect)
- LIkelihood retention decrease if targets unattainable.
What is serial correlations in consecutive target deviations?
Looking if the same people meet their targets, look at data from multiple years.
Idea that deviations from targets in one period may affect future periods.
Goal: Model if achieving target is a predictor of achieving targets next period
How can you make sure to avoid punishing managers for putting in high effort?
- Not only absolute, but also relative performance
- If BU stronger (weaker) than peer performance, can reflect exceptional (subpar) managerial performance
What can highly achievable targets give to managers?
Can insulate managers against risk of unfavorable, unforeseen events (noise)
What can favorable nonfinancial performance imply?
That next-period financial targets might be increased more.
How do you make sure that managers are compensated for facing more challenging targets?
By offering a suitable reward for achieving the high targets
What is the main purpose of RPE?
Filter out common noise, such that less risk is imposed on respective manager
What is the main disadvantage of RPE?
Reduces incentives for cooperation as helping others implies increasing the benchmark against which you are evaluated.
In what way can subjectivity reduce risk imposed on managers by external uncontrollable factors
Allows company to include other factors
In what way can achievable targets (buffer) reduce risk imposed on managers by external uncontrollable factors
Giving slightly lower targets can make managers still meet their target if the market is tough.
In what way can RPE reduce risk imposed on managers by external uncontrollable factors
By evaluation on relative performance to peers, you can award a manager that nearly missed target if the other managers missed their targets by more.
What are the 3 functions of providing incentives?
- Effort effect: before the fact incentive alignment such that subordinate makes decision in the best interest of the superior
- Selection effect: confident, non-risk averse employees self-select towards jobs with high incentive pay
- Retention effect: Forfeitable equity incentives impose a cost on leaving to the extent that new employer will not reimburse these costs.
What does providing high-powered incentives imply?
Providing high-powered incentives implies firms strongly incentivizing effort towards the PM
When are high-powered incentives most suitable?
If firms possess high quality PM, meaning high congruence and low noise
What is the risk of strong incentives?
Much risk exposed on employees (high noise)
Actions not in firm’s best interest (low congruence), such as behavioral displacement and gamesmanship
What are 3 determinants of incentive intensity?
- Hierarchical level of respective manager (+)
- Monitoring difficulty (+)
- Riskiness (-)
