1
Q
What are subgroups/cliques?
A
- tightly knit group of individuals that contain reciprocating relationships
- belong to a total group with unique level of interdependence from that group
2
Q
Characteristics of subgroups/cliques
A
- belong to superordinate group
- clearly discernible from that group
- reciprocating relationships
3
Q
Why do subgroups/cliques emerge?
A
- Identity/belonging
- Position/status
- Context/Inadvertent
4
Q
Identity/belonging
A
- FIRO theory
- optimal distinctiveness theory
5
Q
FIRO theory
A
- people want inclusion and control which is easier in smaller groups
6
Q
Optimal distinctiveness theory
A
- people want acceptance and quality relations, balanced with differentiation and autonomy
7
Q
Position/status
A
- people seek identity, resources, and info to improve status
ex. gravitate towards leaders
8
Q
Context/inadvertent
A
- faultline theory
9
Q
Faultline theory
A
- people group together unintentionally based on hypothetical dividing lines present in all groups
10
Q
Examples of grouping based on the faultline theory
A
- age
- gender
- skill level
11
Q
What do subgroups/cliques do/influence negatively?
A
- antisocial or delinquent behaviours
- substance abuse
- unhealthy eating behaviours
- isolation/self-esteem
- unethical behaviours
12
Q
What do subgroups/cliques do/influence positively?
A
- prosocial behaviours
- self-esteem
- sense of meaning
- knowledge, behaviours, attitudes
- group functioning
13
Q
What have subgroups/cliques been associated with in sport?
A
- athlete stress
- intra-team conflict
- performance issues
14
Q
What has team building research focused on regarding subgroups/cliques?
A
- coaches suggest breaking up of cliques
- factions and cliques divide loyalties
- cliques isolate members
15
Q
What is the general advocacy for subgroups/cliques in sport research?
A
- avoidance/disbandment
16
Q
What does avoiding subgroups/cliques overlook?
A
- complexity of subgroups
- potential benefits for group functioning
17
Q
What is the current understanding of subgroups/cliques informed by other fields?
A
No clear understanding of the…
- nature of subgroups/cliques
- influence on athlete experience and group functioning
- strategies for management
18
Q
Purpose of preliminary exploratory studies
A
- examine the nature of subgroups/cliques in sport through interviews
19
Q
General results of preliminary exploratory studies
A
- general organizing framework for subgroups/cliques
20
Q
Sections of subgroups/cliques framework
A
- Basic assumptions
- Antecedents/precursors
- Nature of groupings
- Consequences
21
Q
Basic assumptions of subgoups/cliques
A
- inevitability
- variability
22
Q
Antecedents/precursors of subgoups/cliques
A
- circumstantial/contextual factors (ex. injured players)
- athlete demographics/characteristics
- general behavioural tendencies
23
Q
Nature of groupings
A
- subgroup vs clique
24
Q
Consequences of subgroups
A
- identifiable subunits
- facilitative
- non-value laden
25
Consequences of cliques
- identifiable subunits
- debilitative
- exclusive/ostracism
- own agenda
26
What were the coach behaviours identified by the preliminary exploratory studies?
- proactive avoidance
- subgroup identification
- subgroup management
27
Take home points of early subgroups/cliques research
- inevitability of subgroups
- innate need to belong is not satisfied at team level
- clique identification/management is not all or nothing
28
Longitudinal case studies general purpose
- conduct longitudinal, repeated interview case studies to examine awareness and perceptions of subgroups/cliques over time
29
Wagstaff longitudinal study results
1. Awareness and understanding
2. Development over time
3. Subgroups/cliques influence
4. Management
30
Wagstaff- awareness and understanding
- overt consideration/awareness within the team
- newbie athlete wariness/uncertainty
- inevitable and facilitative
31
Wagstaff- development over time
Variability in both membership and behaviour
- early membership based on cohort
- late season based on interests, leadership, status, training requirements
- membership flexibility and "tipping points"
32
Wagstaff- subgroups/cliques influence
- clear differentiation btwn subgroups and cliques
33
Wagstaff - subgroups
- innocuous and inevitable
34
Wagstaff- cliques
- exclusive
- antisocial
- destabilizing
- conflict oriented
35
What was a common consensus among clique members in Wagstaff longitudinal study?
- that their behaviours were facilitative and acceptable
36
Wagstaff- management
- monitor subgroups, manage cliques
- require coach and athlete input and authentic management
- dont force it, let it happen naturally
37
Saizew longitudinal study results
1. Variability based on performance
2. Team structure
3. Proactive/consistent effort
38
Saizew- variability based on performance
- groupings changed based on successful performance
- early on groupings based on superficial factors but as time goes on they are more value based
39
Saizew- team structure
- structural constraints impact interactions
- sport type, facility/schedule limitations, team size
40
Saizew- proactive/consistent effort
- managing subgroups and cliques
ex. leadership groups, purposeful team building, superordinate objectives
41
Take home points from longitudinal studies
- athletes aware of subgroup membership (tipping points is when these were most prominent)
- desire for authentic management
42
What is there a need for when understanding subgroups/cliques?
- self-reflection and understanding of own behaviours
- proactive behaviours contingent on sport stucture/context
43
What does the perceptual components of the subgroup/clique research mean?
- significance of groupings is likely in the eye of the beholder
44
What is the purpose of perception components?
- establish an understanding of how athletes perceive and experience subgroups
45
What is the process of determining the perceptual components of subgroups/cliques?
1. Literature review
2. Conceptual model creation
46
Perceptual components conceptual model
- focus group w athletes
- expert researcher review process
- critical appraisal of revisions by experts and athletes
47
The interaction of which two factors leads to the athlete subgroup experience?
1. Observability (what is observed)
2. Behaviours (interpretation of actions)
48
Sub-dimensions of observability
1. Surface level characteristics
2. Deep level characteristics
49
Observability surface level characteristics
- program
- position
- age
50
Observability deep level characteristics
- values
- orientations
- beliefs
51
Sub-dimensions of behaviours
1. Organizational citizenship (are you a good teammate?)
2. Organizational alignment
52
Organizational citizenship
- helping
- civic virtue
- conscientiousness
- sportspersonship
53
Organizational alignment
- how does the group align with the norms and roles of the organization?
54
Outcomes based on athlete subgroup experience
1. Affective
2. Cognitive
3. Behavioural
55
Why is a questionnaire useful to put this theory into practice?
1. Subgroup research has mainly been qualitative
2. Critical for understanding and advancement of constructs
3. Explore why athletes see subgroups as beneficial and understand their relation to imp team processes or emergent states
56
How is a questionnaire created?
1. Item generation
2. Expert input
3. Athlete review
57
Key takeaways from whole lecture
1. Subgroupings are not automatically a bad thing
2. They require careful consideration and planning from coaches
3. Best to include athletes in the discussion to foster autonomy and ownership
58
What is communication?
- information exchange occurring through verbal and non-verbal means
59
Three principles of communication
1. Communication patterns are normally homogenous
2. Communication increases homogeneity
3. Communication is facilitated by homogeneity
60
How are communication patterns normally homogeneous?
- birds of a feather
- individuals communicate with others who are similar in attitudes and characteristics
61
How does communication increase homogeneity?
- through attitudes, knowledge and beliefs
62
How is communication facilitated by homogeneity?
In relation to
- common language
- common motives
- common values
63
What has sport research explored relative to communication?
1. Communication as a fundamental component of other concepts
2. A process in itself
64
Communication as a fundamental component of other concepts - Eys, Evans and Benson
- organizing framework of group dynamics
65
Eys, Evans, & Benson (2020) organizing framework for group dynamics
- position communication as a critical group process
66
What can't be done without communication?
- coordination
- goal setting
- action planning
67
Communication as a fundamental component of other concepts - McEwan and Beauchamp
- comprehensive model of teamwork in sport
68
Comprehensive model of teamwork for sport (McEwan and Beauchamp 2014)
Communication is...
- a dynamic process involving a collaborative effort by team members to effectively carry out the independent and interdependent behaviours that are required to maximize a team's likelihood of achieving its purposes
69
The process of the comprehensive model of teamwork for sport
1. Inputs
2. Mediators
3. Outcomes
70
Where does communication fit in in the process of the comprehensive model of teamwork for sport?
- mediators
71
Regulation of team performance in the comprehensive model of teamwork for sport sections
- preparation
- execution
- evaluation
- adjustments
72
Comprehensive model of teamwork for sport- preparation
- mission analysis
- goal specification
- planning
73
Comprehensive model of teamwork for sport- execution
- coordination
- cooperation
- comunication
74
Comprehensive model of teamwork for sport- evaluation
- performance and system monitoring
75
Comprehensive model of teamwork for sport- adjustments
- problem solving
- innovation
76
Communication as a fundamental component of other concepts - Eccles and Tenenbaum
- conceptual model of team coordination
77
Conceptual model of team coordination (Eccles and Tenenbaum 2004)
- communication is central in team coordination
78
How do you assess communication in research?
- questionnaire
- observation
79
What are you assessing when you are assessing communication?
- type of communication (verbal vs non-verbal)
- quality of communication
- frequency of communication
80
What did Sullivan and Feltz (2003) create
- scale for effective communication in team sports questionnaire (SECTS)
81
What is the SECTS questionnaire based on?
The expressions of...
1. Acceptance
2. Distinctiveness
3. Positive conflict
4. Negative conflict
82
SECTS questionnaire - acceptance
- consideration among teammates
83
SECTS questionnaire - distinctiveness
- highlighting the uniqueness of the group (ex. slogans, inside jokes)
84
SECTS questionnaire - positive conflict
- constructive exchanges dealing with problems within the group
85
SECTS questionnaire - negative conflict
- confrontational approaches to team issues
86
What was effective communication via SECTS correlated with? (Sullivan and Gee 2007)
- athlete satisfaction
- team cohesion
87
Lausic et al. (2009) research example
- 10 women
- doubles tennis
- audio/visual btwn and during points
88
Lausic et al. (2009) research example results
- most communication was emotional (>50%) or action statements (>25%)
- winning teams exhibited 2x more communication and communication was more homogenous in nature
89
Durdubas, Martin & Koruc (2019) research example
- direct comparison of nonverbal behaviours of top and bottom 4 professional men's vball teams in Turkey
- matches analyzed for each team based on three conditions (win, loss, tie)
90
Durdubas, Martin & Koruc (2019) research example results
- top 4 used more non-verbal communication and more instructional and supportive behaviours
91
Why are emotions important in communication?
- emotions are contagious
- athletes require emotional intelligence
92
Tamminen et al (2018) collective emotions
- affect performance, team values, coping with stressors and members relations
93
Van Kleef (2009) Emotions as Social Information model (EASI)- how do emotional expressions influence others?
- communicating info regarding the originator's feelings, behavioural intentions etc. (inferential)
- affecting others own emotions (affective reaction)
94
Studying communication key points- what
- a fundamental component or a process in and of itself
95
Studying communication key points- how
- largely self-report and observational methods
96
Studying communication key points- why
- implications for verbal, non-verbal and emotional expressions
97
Two concepts of shared knowledge
1. Transactive memory
2. Shared mental models
98
What is transactive memory?
- represents the diff pockets of knowledge held within a group
99
What does transactive memory include?
- smaller pockets of information that are uniquely held by each member
- each member's knowledge pertaining to who knows what
100
Where did the idea of transactive memory stem from?
- members likely cant share all knowledge/info
- so groups create systems where members defer to one another based on certain topics
101
History of subgroup/clique research
1. 2015- preliminary exploratory studies, longitudinal case studies, perceptual components
2. Now- Psychometric development
3. Future- evaluating differences btwn actual and perceived grouping tendencies
KNPE363
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