Related psychological principles
Research in this area is based on the principles of communication (both verbal and non-verbal communication) and emphasis is placed on trying to evaluate the reliability of information and deliberate deception. Now, you will explore elements of verbal and non-verbal communication.
What are they trying to say?
Take a look at the images in the Slideshare below, and think about what is being communicated through body language in each photo. What do you think is being said during these interactions? Do you think the body language (non-verbal communication) would match the words being spoken (verbal communication) in each instance?
Elements of non-verbal communication - describe the elements of verbal or non-verbal communication
9 images will be presented in this clip. Using the Guide to the Elements of Non-Verbal Communication, guess the overarching emotion that is represented in each image.
Make your guess is ‘educated’ by analysing the images using some of the elements in the Guide as points of reference.
Image 1: Man and woman at a dinner table posing awkwardly
Image 2: Man and woman side-by-side facing water with caption “Planning a (Clever) First Date) by the Clover Coquettes”
Image 3: Group of men crowded around table with arms outstretched
Image 4: Two women facing a man with palms up in rigid stances
Image 5: Woman and man at a dinner table with woman crossing her arms looking awa
Image 6: Group of college students on park bench laughing
Image 7: Side-by-side photographs. The left shows a man right up against another’s face but they’re both laughing. The right photograph shows a man right up against another man’s face with both looking tense
Image 8: Man and a woman dining at a restaurant and facing each other in intimate setting
Image 9: Two athletes with arms on each other embracing
Paralanguage
Non-verbal cues of the voice (e.g. pauses, tone)
Oculesics (eye contact) Generally revolves around length and intensity of contact and may be used to:
control conversation express emotion indicate honesty/frankness
Kinesics (body language)
Non-vocal body movements that express meaning
Facial expressions (Ekman)
Anger, happiness, disgust, sadness, surprise and fear
Gesture Specific signs or motions used to enhance communication such as:
emblems: substitute for words and phrases illustrators: accompany and reinforce verbal messages affect displays: indicate emotional meaning regulators: assist in controlling conversation/interaction.
Proxemics (interpersonal space)
Intimate distance: about 15–45cms Personal distance: about 46–120cms Social distance: about 1.2–3.4mtrs Public distance: about 3.7–7.6mtrs.
Haptics (touch)
Positive (like a pat on the back) Negative (spanking) Control (grabbing of the arm) Playful (tickling) Ritualistic (handshake) Task-related (dance positioning).
Verbal Communication - describe the elements of verbal or non-verbal communication
Verbal communication can take on a range of different styles, depending on our background, our personality, or our motives. Here are some examples of verbal communication styles commonly employed by investigators:
Standard versus non-standard speech: The degree to which an individual employs non-normative words and phrases (e.g. slang). Powerful versus non-powerful speech: The degree to which an individual speaks with authority. Accommodations versus non-accommodation: The degree to which an individual adjusts their speech to match the speech styles of others present.
During interviewing and questioning, investigators can deliberately adjust their communication style to different effects:
Perceptual set: A target’s perception of a communication will be impacted by their current mindset (i.e. frame of mind). Stress: A target’s perception of a communication will be negatively impacted if they are too stressed OR too relaxed (Yerkes-Dodson Principle). Cognitive overload: A target’s perception of a communication will be negatively impacted if they are cognitively over-taxed
The differing goals of questioning and interviewing
Questioning objectives
Establish a rapport with the person. Ensure questions are in fact questions. Ensure communication is clear. Ensure that any potential psychological barriers to communication are removed.
Interviewing objectives
Manage the environment. Establish control of the interaction. Maintain control of the interaction. Detect deception.
Read Chapter 15 Language and communication (Links to an external site.) (Vaughan & Hogg, 2011, pp. 600–640), as they go into much greater depth in the discussion of verbal and non-verbal communication and will provide more information for you than the summary table in the next module.
- Communication - transfer meaningful information from one person to another
- Gestures - transfer meaningful body movements and postures
- Language - a system of sounds that convey meaning because of shared grammatical and semantic rules
- Utterance - sounds made by one person to another
- Locution - words placed in a sentence
- Illocution - words placed in a sequence and the context in which its done
- Searle (1979) 5 meanings of communication, 1. to say how something is, 2. to get someone to do something, 3. to express feelings and attitudes, 4. to make a commitment, 5. to accomplish something directly.
- Linguistic Relativity - view that language determines thought and therefore people who speak different languages see the world in very different ways
- Paralanguage - the non-linguistic accompaniments of speech (stress, pitch, speed, tone and pauses)
- Speech Style - The way in which something is said (accent, language) rather than the context of what is said
- Social Markers - Features of speech style that convey information about mood, context, status and group membership
- Matches-guise technique - research methodology to measure peoples attitudes towards a speaker based solely on speech style
- Received Pronunciation - standard, high status, spoken variety of english
- Social Identity Theory - theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparison, and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties.
- Ethnolinguistic Identity Theory - Application and extension of social identity theory to deal with language behaviour of ethnolinguistic groups
- Ethnolinguistic Group - social group defined principally in terms of its language
- Ethonlinguistic Vitality - concept describing objective features of an inter-ethnic context that influence language and ultimately that cultural survival disappearange of an ethnolinguistic groups
- Subject validity - individual group members representation of the objective ethnolinguistic vatality of their group
- Speech Accommodation Theory - Modification of speech style to the context (listener, situation of face to face interindividual conversation
- Speech Convergence - accent or speech style shifts towards that of the other person
- Speech Divergence - accent or speech style shifts away from that of the other person
- Stereotype - widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members
- Communicaion Accommodation Theory - modification of verbal and non-verbal communiation styles to the context (listener, situation of a face to face interaction - an extenson of speech accommocation theory to incorporate non verbal communication
- Bilingualism - immigrants often choose to maintain their linguistic heritage
- Gender - has differences in development of language from boys and girls
- Age - depends on cultural upbringing and what is carried forth
- Ageism - prejudice or discrimination against people based on their age
- Attachment Styles - descriptions of nature of peoples close relationships thought to be established in childhood
- Six basic Emotions - anger, happiness, surprise, fear, sadness and disgust
- Unlearned facial displays - crying and smiling
- Display rules - cultural and situational rules that dictate how appropriate it is to express emotions in any given context
- Nature VS Nuture Controversy - classic debate about whether genetic or environmental factors determine human behaviour. Scientists generally accept that it is an interaction of both.
- Visual Dominance Behaviour - tendency to gaze fixedly at a lower status of speaker
- Kinesics - linguistics of body communication
- Emblems - gestures that replace or stand in for spoke language
- Touch - 5 types, positive effect, playful, control, ritualistic, task-related - men touch women more than women touch men. touch is dependent on culture
- Proxemics - study of interpersonal difference
- Personal Space - physical space around peoples body which they treat as apart of themselves.
- Bogus Pipeline - a measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses thus measuring their attitudes
- Non-verbal communication is subliminal, deceivers tend to touch their face more, or fiddle
- Ending a conversation signal - 1. coming to the end of a sentence, 2. raising or lowering the intonation of the last word, 3. drawing out the last syllable, 4. leaving a sentence unfinished to invite a continuation, 5. body movements such as ceasing hand gestures, opening the eyes wide of lifting the head with the last note of a question, sitting back or looking directly to the listener.
Back-channel Communication - verbal and non-verbal communication ways in which listeners let speakers know they are still listening
Discourse - entire communicative event or episode located in a situational and sociohistorical context
Social Representations - collectively elaborated explanations of unfamiliar and complex phenomena that transform them into a familiar and simple form
Discourse Analysis - a set of methods used to analyze text, naturally occurring language in order to understand its meaning and significance
Deindividuation - process whereby people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised often antisocial behaviours
Read Part II detecting deception (PDF 1.5 MB) (Links to an external site.) (Hess, 2010, pp. 39–64), as it has a great explanation on how verbal and non-verbal clues can be used to detect deception (Hess, 1997). The three chapters of this section are short, and will definitely help you complete the Activity.
The unimportant flaw - liars, when telling a story must rely on their imagination, they have no actual memory of the event because it never happened. Often produce a story that varies in many ways from the recounted memory. When confronted by investigators nearly all suspects, both the guilty and the innocent will have a prepared version of the event in question. Suggested that you listen not just for the relevant facts but for the tangential items as well. Suspects often put little though into them. The supervisor should look beyond the respective accounts of what happened at the scene. The secret lays in understanding the nature of the parking lot security officer. Listening provides the key.
A change in demeanor - Tell the suspect you would like to go over the story again, as the suspect tells the story, interrupt at various points and ask for additional details. Questions have 2 characteristics, they relate to what the subject said but at the same time offer little change that the suspect will have anticipated them. Makes the questions reasonable and required answers that the suspect will not have rehearsed. ‘was it decorated’, Listening carefully for the suspects tone and demeanor as they respond. Most guilty people who have consented to an interview do so with the intention of convincing the interviewer of their innocence.
The trap - it may be the interviewer conveying the feeling that he believes the suspect. An effective trap question should meet several criteria: it should not be accusatory; based on potential evidence currently under development; use only after the suspect has committed to a statement that the evidence might be refuted; in answer to the question regarding the alley, innocent suspects would deny having been there but guilty people will change their story and give an outlandish and potential contradiction. Listen not only for the answer but for the spontaneity of the response. Use of similar ploys has occasionally resulted in a confession.
Indicator Questions - Investigators have noted that despite the creativity of many liars, they often behave in predictable ways, particularly regarding how they answer certain questions. Their goals, escape and evasion, channel them into paths of predictable behaviour. Interviewers usually introduce themselves by giving their name, position and purpose. It can provide insight when asking a suspect why they think they are there. By weaving leading questions into the interview and keeping track of the answers, interviewers can determine whether a deceitful pattern exists.
Attempts to Convince - If interviewers reduce the initial anxiety causes by their presence and refrain from making accusations, few innocent people will feel the need to convince the interviewers of their honesty.
Summary - truthful people recount events from memory; thus, their stories sound real. Liars must use their imagination and even when given plenty of time to prepare, their stories often have a hallow ring that can be heard by an attentive interviewer.
Non-Verbal Cues - The Fight or Flight Response - adrenalin and sugar are released into the bloodstream, pulse and breathing rates increase, sweat glands activate, pupils dilate, salvatory glands shut down, digestion ceases. guilty people represent the modem version of the saber-toothed tiger, they pose a threat, the suspects body prepares of fight or flight. Rapport building is important in differentiating the guilty from the innocent. Build rapport, learn the suspects truthful behaviour, look for deviations from truthful behaviour when the discussion turns to relevant matters, withhold judgement until a certain time, ensure that these behaviours occur.
Creativity - eyemovement and modes of thought in rapport building. creativity = lying.
Polygraph can detect changes in the body that result from the anxiety of being caught in a lie.
Read Chapter 9 Case study: The interrogation from Interviewing and interrogation for law enforcement (Links to an external site.) (Hess, 2010, pp. 99–103) in preparation for this week’s discussion. Take note of the suspect’s verbal responses and body language and how the interviewer established and maintained control of the interview.
Analysis of Case:
- used many techniques to produce the confession
- minimization as his primary pitch
- took the time to verbalize the insignificance of the deed (if they paid her more, she wouldnt have to steal, was needed for her kids - made the confession more palatable)
- classic sales principle gratitude - stood up for her, she felt indebted and responded accordingly
When questioning someone, what would your goals be?
The tactics of an interview intended to gain a confession would not, for example, be used when questioning a witness - the goals of these interactions are therefore the method of interaction is dramatically difference between each style of interaction
Questioning Objectives:
- establish a rapport with the person
- ensure questioning are in fact questions
- ensure communication is clear
- ensure that any potential psychological barriers to communication are removed.
What might be the goals, if you are interviewing someone?
Interviewing Objectives:
- manage the environment
- establish control of the interaction
- maintain control of the interaction
- detect deception
What sort of information can be indicated to some extent through eye contact?
generally revolves around length and intensity of contact and may be used to:
- control conversation
- express emotion
- indicate honesty/frankness
The forensic interviewer would note verbal and non-verbal markers. What could some markers be?
Verbal Communication:
- standard vs non-standard speech (the degree to which an individual employs non-normative works and phrases, such as slang)
- Powerful vs non-powerful speech ( the degree to which an individual speaks with authority)
- Accommodation vs non-accommodation (the degree to which an individual adjusts their speech to match the speech styles of others present)
During an interview:
- perceptual set (a targets perception of a communication will be impacted by their current mindset)
- stress (a targets perception of a communication will be negatively impacted if they are too stressed OR too relaxed)
- Cognitive Overload (a targets perception of a communication will be negatively impacted if they are cognitive over-taxed)
Non-Verbal Communication:
- paralanguage (pauses, tones)
- oculesics (eye contact - control conversation, express emotion, indicate honesty/frankness)
- Kinesics (body language - body movements)
- Facial expressions (anger, happiness, disgust, sadness, surprise and fear)
- Gesture (emblems: substitute for words and phrases, illustrators: accompany and reinforce verbal messages, affect displays: indicate emotional meaning, regulators: assist in controlling conversation/interaction)
- Proxemics (interpersonal space - intimate distance 15 - 45 cms, personal distance 46 - 120 cms, social distance 1.2 - 3.4 mtrs, publish distance 3.7 - 7.6 mtrs)
- Haptics (touch - positive - pat on the back, negative - spanking, control - grabbing the arm, playful - tickling, ritualistic - handshake, task-related - dance positioning)
Can certain behavioural attitudes, such as anxiety, ambivalence, being guarded can indicate deception?
Read Part II detecting deception: Hess
Summary - truthful people recount events from memory; thus, their stories sound real. Liars must use their imagination and even when given plenty of time to prepare, their stories often have a hallow ring that can be heard by an attentive interviewer.
Non-Verbal Cues - The Fight or Flight Response - adrenalin and sugar are released into the bloodstream, pulse and breathing rates increase, sweat glands activate, pupils dilate, salvatory glands shut down, digestion ceases. guilty people represent the modem version of the saber-toothed tiger, they pose a threat, the suspects body prepares of fight or flight. Rapport building is important in differentiating the guilty from the innocent. Build rapport, learn the suspects truthful behaviour, look for deviations from truthful behaviour when the discussion turns to relevant matters, withhold judgement until a certain time, ensure that these behaviours occur.
Creativity - eyemovement and modes of thought in rapport building. creativity = lying.
Polygraph can detect changes in the body that result from the anxiety of being caught in a lie.
