adulthood
- A far more diverse stage that the others.
- Hard to study as it is characterised by such diversity.
○ Adults are highly variable.
Not thoroughly studied.
- Hard to study as it is characterised by such diversity.
timing of event theories
- Individuals seek to match internalised perceptions of their society’s normative timeline or “social clock”
- Socially, we have an idea of the time when things should occur.
- Emphasises the importance of the developmental context
- Leads to ideas about whether individuals are early, on-time, or late and a sense of “age-appropriate” behaviours
social clock
ocial clock
• On time – following the social timetable
• Off time – out of phase with peers
• Timing of events theories
• Describe and explain patterns of behaviour
• Explain diversity among groups
• Cultural and generational differences reflect different expectations
normative crisis theories
• Individuals progress and develop in response to inbuilt/innate inner crises
○ Less dependent on social influences.
○ Rather about development as a result of crises faced throughout the life.
• Examples include:
• Erikson
• George Valliant
• Allan Levinson
erikson on intimacy
- “the capacity to commit (oneself) to concrete affiliations and partnerships and to develop the ethical strenght to abide by such commitments even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromises” (Erikson, 1963)
- We cannot do this if we do not know who we are and what we stand for
- Identity is a necessary prerequisite
erikson’s intimacy vs isolation
- Development of stable identity (from prior Identity vs Role Confusion stage) necessary prerequisite
- Intimacy prior to proper identity formation may lead to identity loss
- Thus, identity is a precursor of intimacy.
- Avoidance of intimacy leads to isolation and self-absorption
- Development of ability to establish intimacy requires ability to empathise with others
- Intimacy prior to proper identity formation may lead to identity loss
generativity vs stagnation
- Developing a concern and nurturance for next generation
* Personal legacy- Most important task in middle adulthood
- Link between generativity and well-being stronger for women than men
- Personal legacy and nurturing particularly important for the mental wellbeing of women.
experiences that help resolution of generativity vs stagnation
• Experiences that help resolution of generativity vs stagnation:
• Parenthood and Grandparenthood
• Professions that have potential to help next generation and beyond
• Can also be through the contributions of their career.
§ Taking on mentoring roles etc.
§ Or only taking on jobs that will make a difference.
normative crisis theory: Vaillant
- George Vaillant (1934-)
- Theory based on the results of the Harvard “Grant study”
- Longitudinal study started in 1937 with over 200 white male Harvard students
- Recruited from graduating class at Harvard in 41 etc.
- Met with them around once or twice a year and took data.
- Included measurements of the skull etc.
- Essentially asked what makes people happy.
- Key conclusions from the Harvard “Grant study”
- Development is lifelong
- Basically follows Eriksonian structure with added element of career consolidation
- The nature of sustained relationships shape lives more than isolated events (even those that are traumatic and/or unexpected)
- I.E. a continuingly abusive parental relationship is more influential than losing a parent at a young age.
- Adaptive mechanisms/coping styles used to deal with life events determine mental health
- A third of the participants developed some kind of mental illness throughout the study.
adaptive mechanisms
mature mechanisms
immature mechanisms
mature mechanisms
- These people were happier in later life.
* Altrusism, humour, anticipation (participating what may go wrong and when this bad period will end), sublimination (turn emotional distress into a healthy resource).
* Engaging these mechanisms was increased relative to age and related to sustaining relationships.- Preferenced increasingly over immature mechanisms with age
- Sustained and loving relationships
immature mechanisms
- Perpetual boys (maintained use of immature mechanisms- acting out, passive aggression, hypochondria, fantasy.)
- Problems with identity and intimacy
normative crisis theory: Levinson
• Biographical model- 40 subjects (age 35-45)
• Found 3 eras or seasons
• Individuals alternate between stable and transitional phases
• Formation, review and reconstitution of “life structures” (work, relationships, leisure)
• Transition phase may be prompted by an unrealised goal
Idea that throughout adulthood we form, review and change.
stages in Levinson’s theory
early adulthood transition
midlife transition
late adult transition
SEE DIAGRAM
• Era of Early Adulthood
(17-45) • Dream of adult accomplishment, forming what the dream is. • Forming mentor relationships • Developing an occupation Establishing intimate relationships
Era of middle adulthood
(40-65)
• Coming to terms with unfulfilled dream and revising the dream.
• Dream of adult accomplishment revised
criticisms of theories
- Generally based on middle class white male samples (limited application to females)
- However, were representative of what they wished to study, that is, how successful people progress.
- Although both Levinson and Vaillant later studied female samples they were trying to impose a theoretical frame developed with a male sample
- Product of their time and are increasingly not applicable to rapidly changing social climate
relationships in adulthood
• Romantic relationships
• Family relationships (the Family Lifecycle)
• Arousal and ‘romance’ is found through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
• Breathing increased, pupils dilated, sweating.
Same theory as when we are fearful.
two bridges experiment
- Heterosexual males.
- Female researcher asked questions.
- One had to meet researcher over a stable or not stable bridge.
- Researcher gave her number at the conclusion.
- Participants that met her at the end of the fearful bridge were much more likely to call.
- The arousal experienced by fear was mistaken by participants as love.
Sternberg’s theory of love
• Sternberg (1988, 2006) developed the triarchic theory of love to explain different types of love based upon the strength of the three components of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment
triarchic theory of love
- Passion
- sexual attraction, romantic feelings, and excitement
- Intimacy
- feelings of warmth, caring, closeness, trust, and respect in the relationship
- Decision/commitment
- involves first deciding that one loves the other person and then committing to a long-term relationship
types of love
- Types of love can result depending on whether each of the three dimensions of love are high or low (love can take a variety of forms)
- Consummate love – high levels of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment
- Companionate love – high intimacy and commitment but not much passion
- Sternberg’s work suggests that relationships are likely to fare best if partners have similar balances of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment
adult attachment
- Grew out of research on infant attachment
- Attachment style applicable across the lifespan
- Adult’s current view of early attachment relationships is a good predictor of current attachment style & relationship quality.
- Distribution of attachment styles similar to infant attachment.
- Internal working models of self and other formed on the basis of parent-child interactions affect the quality of later relationships
- Infant attachment predictive but not 100% determinant of adult attachment style
- Adult relationship experiences also influential
- Can potentially remedy the effects of insecure infant attachment
- Can potentially lead to insecure attachment style if particularly negative
attachment styles in adulthood
• Four attachment styles may result, according to whether the view of self is either positive or negative and the view of other people is either positive or negative ○ Secure ○ Preoccupied ○ Dismissing ○ Fearful SEE DIAGRAM
