What was the simple model/framework for memory?
- Acquisition (gaining info)
- Storage
- Retrieval
Explain the modal model of memory.
- An information-processing view of memory.
What is sensory memory and who studied it (Modal Model)?
- A type of concise lasting memory that briefly stores raw sensory information; large in capacity, short in duration
-Iconic (Sensory memory for visual info) and echoic (sensory memory for auditory info)
-Studied by George Sperling
Describe Short-Term memory in the modal model.
- Only short-term memory interacts with the world.
-Long-term memory requires short-term memory for encoding and retrieval (long-term mem moves back to short when retrieving)
3. Short-term memory needs to be refreshed via maintenance rehearsal
What are the drawbacks of the Modal Model of memory?
- New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge.
- Effective learning depends on how the information will later be retrieved (acquisition and retrieval are interconnected)
- Short-term memory is not a passive “loading dock”; it is an active process
What 2 updates have been made to the modal modal?
- Sensory information plays a minimal role in modern theorizing
-Short-term memory: largely replaced by “working memory” in modern theories; better understood as a status or activity rather than a place
- Working memory capacity (7 chunks); working memory is currently activated ideas or thoughts that are being worked on by a specific set of operations
What are examples showing the difference between short-term memory and working memory?
Short-Term Memory: Temporality remembering a phone number; measured via digit span (retrieval test asking how many numbers someone can recall).
Working Memory: Solving a multiplication equation without paper and pencil; measured via operation span (reading span - asked to recall sentences in a book)
Example chunking.
- A strategy to improve working memory capacity.
-Can only hold +-7 chunks (you can increase. the number of things contained in these chunks
- Requires effort but reduces WM load; does NOT increase WM capacity (size)
What are the differences between working memory and long-term memory?
Working Memory: fragile, temporary; limited capacity and size; relatively easy ease of entry; relatively easy ease of retrieval
Long-Term Memory: Long-last; enormous capacity; effortful ease of entry; different to get info out of long-term memory
What are the two serial position effects? Explain them both.
- The primacy effect: An often-observed advantage in remembering the early-presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that research participants can focus their full attention on these items because, at the beginning of a sequence, they are not trying to divide attention between them and other items in the series.
Regency Effect: The tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect could be attributed to the fact that the late-arriving items are still in working memory (because nothing else has arrived after these items to bump them out of working memory). *Earlier items are displaced by subsequent items.
What tasks test claims about recency effect and primacy effect?
Primacy:
- Slowing down the presentation of words allows for greater rehearsal of all words, allowing more of them to get into long-term memory.
- Delaying recall with a different task in between learning and retrieval; early items should NOT be affected because LTM does not depend on current activity.
What are the 4 components of Baddeley’s working memory modal?
- Central Executive
- Phonological loop
- Episodic Buffer
- Visuospatial sketch pad
What is the phonological loop (Baddeley’s model)?
One of the low-level assistants hypothesized as being part of the working memory system.
This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech. Maintaining and rehearsing sounds!
What is subvocalization and how does it affect the phonological loop?
- Silent Speech (ex: repeating words to yourself)
- Launches the rehearsal loop and passively stores the sound representatives
What 4 things affect the phonological loop?
- The Word Length Effect: working memory performance declines with word length (working memory decreases as word length lengths due to the length of rehearsing sounds for long words).
- Vocalization speed/ Language and digit span result: working memory performance is better with speed - fewer sounds to make (length of words of numbers have different amounts of syllables and different amounts of sound)
- Errors Sound the Same: similar rehearsal sounds are much harder when needing to recall
- Articulatory Suppression: Meaningless verbal expressions interfere with memory (ex, adding “the, the, the”) - reduces WM capacity
What is the visuospatial sketch pad (Baddeley’s model)??
Holds visual and spatial information that can be manipulated (ex: more rotation is more work and takes longer to process because space is manipulated)
What is the episodic buffer (Baddeley’s model)?
Holds sentences, stories, and locations
What is the difference between shallow maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
Maintenance: only keeps info in WM
Relational or Elaborative rehearsal: thinking of info on a deeper level; promotes info to move to LT
What is the level-of-processing theory?
- Retention depends on the level of processing you do at encoding.
Deeper processing at encoding equals better later recall - Depth of Processing: Shadow processing (visual appearance), Intermediate processing (sounds), and then deep processing (semantics/meaning).
What is the difference between shallow processing and deep processing?
Shallow: superficial (ex: paying attention to visual or auditory characteristics)
Deep Processing: Meaningful (ex: paying attention to meaning or self-relevance)
What is the difference between incidental learning versus intentional learning?
Incidental: learning in the absence of an intention to learn.
Intentional learning: deliberate, with the expectation that memory will be later tested.
*The intent to memorize has NO effect, but can lead you to chose a deeper strategy
How do connections promote retrieval?
Connections between to-be-remember items, memories and context facilitate later retrieval as it establishes indexing which consists of a path to the information
What did Craik and Tulving (1975) study conclude?
Elaborate encoding fosters retrieval by establishing rich connections.
Did this with different word recalled and these were used in different contexts
What aids retrieval at encoding?
- What the memorizer was doing at the time of exposure
- The background knowledge of the memorizer
- New learning is grounded in previous learned knowledge
- Effective learning depends on how the information will be later retrieved.
