1
Q
vaccination vs immunisation
A
vaccination is injection of antigenic material
immmunisation is the porcess of developing immunity
2
Q
lubdub caused by
A
LUB = av valves closing
DUB = semilunar valves closing
3
Q
if the ion is necessary for the function what is it
A
PROSTHETIC GROUP
4
Q
in what way does most water move across the root cortex
A
apoplast pathway
5
Q
casparian strip contains …
A
(lignin)SUBERIN
6
Q
how can facilitated diffusion NOT reqruie energy
A
- particles have their own kinetic energy
- move DOWN the concentration gradient
7
Q
why cant glucose diffuse throguh membrane
A
- phospholipid bilayer acts as a barrier
- glucose molecules too large
- ALSO; glucose not soluble in phospholipid bilayer due to polar -OH groups
8
Q
suggest how a water leaf is supported
A
- air spaces give buoyancy
- supoorted by surrounding water
9
Q
sieve tube shape
A
hexagonal
10
Q
purpose of disulfide bridge in antibodies
A
- hold hte ppcs (light chains and heavy chains) together
11
Q
what is an autoimmunie disease (2)
A
- abnormal immune response
- agaisnt tissues normally in the body
12
Q
how is water stil being lost even when stem is cut in potometer
A
evaporation
from leaf’s surface
13
Q
sources of error in transporation experiment
A
- leaks in apparatus
- shoot not cut underwater
- error in reading position of meniscus
14
Q
why is x described as ACTIVE immunity (3)
A
- lymphocytes activated
- antibodies produced
- memory cells remain
15
Q
why is transpirartion inevtiable
A
- stomata open
- for gas exchange for photosynthesis
- photosynthesis necessary to make sugars for energy
- water potential gradient
- also some lost through waxy cuticle
16
Q
advantage of stomata close during day for xerophytes
A
- transpiration occurs via stomata
- hotter during day, more evaporation. steeper wvp gradient
- shutting prevents loss
17
Q
advantage of needles instead of leaves for xerophytes
A
- smaller SA
- less evaporation as fewer stomata
18
Q
advtantage of hairs on epidermis
A
- hairs trap water vapour
- prevent wind from removing water vapour
- MORE HUMID AROUND LEAF SO
- reduce WVP gradient
19
Q
for all xerophyte questions link to…
A
NEED TO CONSERVE WATER IN ENVIRONMENT
- and wvp gradient
20
Q
transpiration defintion
A
- evaporation of water
- diffusion of water
- down a WP gradient via stomata
21
Q
source and sink defintion
A
source: where assimilates are loaded into the phloem
sink: where assimilates are removed from phloem
22
Q
explain how at different times the same plant root might be a source or a sink (2)
A
SOURCE: when root converts starch into sugars
SINK: when root stores starch
23
Q
evidence of an active process (translocation)
A
ATP
many mitochondria in companion cells
against concentration gradient
24
Q
6 marks for valid potometer set up
A
- cut healthy shoot underwater -> prevent air entering xylem
- cut shoot at a slant -> increase SA
- apparatus set up under water, full of water -> no air bubblles
- airtight/watertight joints
-dry leaves
3 MARKS - constant conditions
- time for shoot to acclimatise
25
why is potometer not actual measures of transpiration rate (3)
transpiration: loss of water vapour
- potometer measures water uptake to replace loss
- assumes all uptake is lost
- but some might be used eg photosynthesis
26
2 features of root hair cell adapted for WATER UPTAKE (3)
- large sa (:v) cos of projection
- thin wall; short diffusion path
- unlignified
27
3 adaptattions of xylem
1. hollow -> ease of flow and more space
2. no end walls -> continuous flow
3. lignin -> stops collapse, waterproof (spirals)
4. narrow lumen -> more capillary rise
28
why use a large number of x for a mean (2)
- smaller % uncertainty
- results not skewed by anomalies
29
why would photographing the stomata make them easier to count (2)
- permanent record
- can zoom in
30
why is x a tissue (2)
- few types of cells
- work together for a specific function
31
companioin cell adaptations (2)
1. living -> active processes
2. many mitochondira -> ATP
32
sieeve tube adaptations (2)
1. little cytoplasm -> more space for transport
2. sieve plate -> perforations allow materials through
33
graph question: explain whether x had an impact when it was introduced in x year
- USE DATA FROM GRAPH
- Look at trends that predate the year given
34
describe the diffusion of x out of the vacuole in NORMAL conditions(3)
- down a concentration gradient (high conc to low conc)
- across TONOPLAST, cell surface membrane
- through cell wall
35
describe trend (standard deviation increases)
- smallest standard deviation = most precise. largest = least precise+QUOTE DATA
- general trend of precision
36
ALWAYS ALWAYS LIMITATION OF BENEDICTS
not just glucose- ALL reducing sugars eg fructose
37
organic molecule defintion (2)
- a molecule containing mainly carbon + other atoms
- eg carbohydrates
38
why might a tube go cloudy after a NEGATIVE benedicts test (3)
- boiling temp required
- q has denatured
- precipitate produced
39
why not look at osmosis results IMMEDIATELY (wait 15 mins)
- time for WP to equilibrate
- osmosis may be slow depneding on WP gradient
40
compare visual vs colorimeter for osmosis
- visual = qualitative
- colorimeter = quantitative
- removes subjectivity
41
if Rf is v similar to another one, how can you modify the procedure to get a better idea? (2)
- longer chromatography paper
- better resolution
42
component of blood plasma also present in lymph (2)
- water
- glucose
43
why might WBC count be high (2)
- patient recovering from an infection
- autoimmune disease
44
effect of adding dye to a cell
DECREASES water potnetial of cell
45
how much sugar is detected in the leaf vs the stem?
-LITTLE sucrose in leaf, more in stem
- supports loading of sucrose into phloem from source
46
how much sugar detected in roots?
-LITTLE sucrose
- shows its used in respiration
47
how might the antiviral drug prevent the spread of a virus (3)
- something to hinder the viral mRNA
- no viral proteins made
- NO new cells infected
48
why no plasmolysis in red blood cells (1)
plasmolysis is in plant cells
49
purpose of UI
- measure end point
50
purpose of pits in xylem
lateral moevement of water
51
autoimmune disease
-abnormal immune response
- against tissues normally in body
52
in waht fluid does the immune response take place
tissue fluid
53
6 marks improving microscope viewieng (6)
1. sharp blade -> thinnest slide, individual cells visisble
2. microtome to cut THIN tissue -> thinnest slide, individual cells visible
3. wet mount -> prevent dehydration of tissue
54
how can vesicles be moved around the cell (2)
- attached by cytoskeleton
- moves by MOTOR PROTEINS/mictrotubules change length
55
2ways to minimise spread of plague (2)
- quarintine those w symptoms
- stay indoors/increase ventilation
56
disadavtange of RBC no nucleus
- no protein synthesis
- cannot reproduce
57
why does a plasmodium use a host cell
to 'hide' from the immune system
58
why dont RBC use the oxygen they carry (2)
- bound to haemoglobin
- no mitochondria -> no aerobic respiration
59
why can overconsuption of x and y lead to malnutrition (4)
- too much energy
- increased fat deposition
- obesity
- lack other food groups
60
why is glucose used up most quickly before maltose etc
- glucose can be used WITHOUT being broken down
- maltose must be hydrolysed
- ENZYME FOR THAT only made when glucose running out
- takes time for transcription + translation
61
how to test for pollutatns causing asthma (4)
- use stem cells to grow lung tissue IN VITRO
- subject tissues to atmospheres containing pollutatns
- look for evidence of smooth muscle contracting
62
mechanism of smooth muscle contracting to constrict airway
- irritant inhaled
- has a shape complementary to the shape of the receptors
- on the plasma membrane of the smooth muscle cells
- they contract
63
why is oxygen dilevered to insects in gaseous form rather than blood? (7)
- diffusion distance too great to supply enough oxygen for active tissues
- mass flow needed
- insects have an open circulatory system, so movement of blood not as efficient
- diffusin of liquid is slower than that of air
64
if a complete ring of bark if removes, suggest 2 reasons why the trunk swells above the cut?
- sucrose+assimilates build up above the cut as cant pass
- decrease water potential
- water moves into cells
-increase cell division
- to produce cells to store sugars
65
method of using length for diffusion
distance has to be divided by 2, to the centre of the cube rather than the whole length
66
purpose squamous epithelium
short diffusion pathway
67
purpose loads of alveoli
large surface area
68
purpose good blood supply + good ventilation
steep concentration gradient
BLOOD SUPPLY: removes oxygen from lungs, VENTILATION: brings oxygen
69
why is lignin essential (3)
- strengh (support)
- prevents collapse, keeps tube open
- waterproofs vessel so cell dies (contents decays)
- creates a hollow tube, continours column of water
70
why is cartilage in trachea essential
- strengt/support to keep trachea open, prevents collapse
- during inhaling, volume thorax increases, pressure decreases
71
substance exhcnage is always to
MEET NEEDS OF ORGANISM
72
Resolution (2)
- ability to distinguish between 2 points close together
- level of detail
73
importance of spiral of lignin (2)
- allows flexibility/stretching
- prevents stem breaking
74
purpose of bordered pits (2)
- allow water to move between vessels
- supply water out to living tissues
75
adaptations of sieve tube for mas flow
- joined end to end to form column
- sieve plates (perforated end walls)
- little cytoplasm
- no nucleus
76
descrube active loading (7 MARKS)
- companion cells active transpot H+ ions out
- creates a concentration gradient
- facilitated diffusion back into companion cells. sucrose moves with ions
- by cotransport protein
- assimilates diffuse through PLASMODESMATA
- into sieve element
77
describe how transpiration contributes to the mechanism of water transport up the stem
- water lost is replaced
- apoplast and symplast pathways
- down WP gradient
- water in the xylem
-loss of water = low hydrostatic pressure at the top
- water moves down pressure gradient
- under tension(pulled up)
- by mass flow
- cohesion creates a column of water
- adhesion of water molecules to xylem(capillary action)
78
why might some flowers survive longer if the ends of the stems are removes before theyre placed in water
- bubble/air present in xylem removed
- restores continous column of water
79
purpose of repeats (4)
- improve RELIABILITY
- identify anomalies
- calculate mean
-assess spread of results
80
cohesion tension theory (4)
- evaporation at top of plant
- tension in xylem
- water molecules cohesion
- pulled up the vessel
81
tranpsiation vs transpiration stream
1. : loss of water vapour by evaporation from aerial parts of the leaf, stomata
2. stream: movement of water from roots to leaves
82
porblem if leaves are wet in potometer
- reduces water vapour potential gradient
83
ar ephospholipids soluble in water
no
84
waht does cholestrol not contain
glyverol, ester bonds, fatty cids
85
improve validity
specify somtehing to control
86
how does an enzyme work (7)
- sibstrate shape complementary to enzyme active site
- substrate binds to active site
- induced fit
- formes ESC
- bonds destabilised
- EPC
- products leave
87
haemoglobin secondary structure
- alpha helix
- with some smal regions of beta pleated sheet
- held together by h bonds
88
4 places where h bonds are found in biomols
- protein secondary structure
- protein tertiary structure
- between cellulose chains
- between DNA bases
89
what are the hpo and hpi interactions (described)
HPO r groups on outside of molecule
HPI r groups on inside of molecule
90
why does ice float
- moelcules spread out
- lattice
91
primary defences BLURT (7)
1. skin: physcal barrier prevents entry of microorgs. sebum = antibacterial
2. mucus membranes: traps pathogens
3. cilia: waft mucus out of airways
4. blood clot: prevents pathogens entering BLOODSTREAM
5. ear wax/nose haris: traps pathogens
6. lysozymes in tears: antibacterial to kill bacteria
7. stomach acid: kills pathogens
92
why are young vulnerable
immature weak immune system
93
anitbody (6 marker blurt)
- y shaped, 4 ppc, 2 light 2 heavy, disulfide bridges
- CONSTANT REGION: opsonin, marker for/binds to phagocytes
- VARIABLE REGION: specific shape, comp to antigen. 1+ VR = agglutination (Attach to 1+ pathogen)
- HINGE: flexibility
- antitoxins, neutralisation: binds to toxins to prevent them from entering cells
94
underlying thing for all virsus
- take over host nucleus
- viral DNA inserted into nucleus
- viral mRNA produce
- viral proteins made
95
why do u need a new vaccine every year
- mutation
- new strain of pathogen
- DIFFERENT ANTIGENS
- og antibody no longer comp
96
sugest why tb more prevalent in lower income group
- homelessness
- overcrowding
- poor diet
97
how is tb spread
- droplets containing pathogen
- coughin/sneezing
- inhaled by uninfected individual
98
how do neutrophils enter tissue fluid
- lobed nucleus
- can change shape
- squeenze through pores in capillary walls
HISTAMINE MAKES WALLS MORE LEAKY
99
WHY ARE PHAGOCYTES Non specific
can break down a range of diff pathgens
100
why seconday defence
after pathogen has entered body
101
why cant bacteria be 'immune' (3)
- bacteria dont have an immune system
-theyre resistant
- ony multicellular have an immune response
102
how doe snuetralisation (antibodies\- work
- bind to toxins
- preventing entry to host cell
103
collagen cross links
- covalent bonds formdd between PPC
- staggered to avoid weak points
104
which of the antibodies bind to gthe antigen
opsonin
agglutinin
105
why one vax for each pathogen
- diff path diff antigen
- specific shape antibody must be comp to antigen
- diff antibody needed for each pathogen
106
why are antibody vaxes artifical passive
- injected
- antibodies not produced
107
agglutinins stop pathogens from
moving and resporducing
108
casparian strip why does it allow ions in endodermis
- waterproof (doesnt allow water through)
- forces water through apoplast pathway, through PLASMA MEMBRANE
- phospholipid bilayer repels ions so need channel proteins
109
xylem phloem structure similar
- xylem and SIEVE TUBE ELEMTNS no nuelcues
- both cells joined end to end
110
improve counting squqares as leaf area (3)
- flatten leaves
- only count squares more than 0.5 covered
- double leaf to give total of both surfaces
111
water vapour bag method improvmenets
1. condensed water reduces trnaspiration. record for shorter time
2. temp etc not controlled. so do at the same
112
if error bars overlap alot
sets of data quite similar
113
graph (2)
- units
- title
114
trnaspiartion error (3)
- not all lower leaf covered
- leaks in apparatus
- error in reading position of meniscus
115
apoplast is between
CELL WALLS
116
if leaves are diff sizes how to compare transpiration
- calc area
- compare transpiratin per unit area
117
why might a potometer readin be higher (4)
- bubble not at starting position
- misread rule
- time too long
- light, temp, air movement etc increased
118
why x apparatus ove the toher
- higher resolution so less uncertainty
119
POTOMETER ASSUMPTION
water uptake = transpiration
120
airtight potometer DURING EXPERIMENT
1. dont allow bubble to move too far -> so bubble doesnt reenter xylem. can be resued
2. submerge end of potometer in water -> prevent air entering
3. keep shoot still -> avoid breaking continous water column
121
hydrophyte adaptations (2)
- many stomata (max ge) and on top surface (gas conc higher in air than water)
- thin waxy cuticle -> waste of wax production
122
transporting glucose in phloem
CONVERTRED TO SUCROSE
123
why is sucrose trnasported (2)
- soluble so can be trnasported in sap
- retalively unreactive, not used for respiration during transport
124
how can u be a source anda sink
- store and release carbs when beeded
- root and leaf, can act as both at diff times of year
125
disssecting plant stem
- cut a thin cross section using a scalpel
- put sample in water so it doesnt dry out
- stain with TBO (toluidine blue o)
- rinse in water and put on slide
126
full phloem adaptations
- sieve tube elements living, joined end to end to form sieve tubes
- NO ORGANELLES, LITTLE CYTOPLASM -> max capacity for tranpsorting assimilates
- having no orgs etc means theyre next to a COMPANION CELL, nucleu snad LOTS of mitochondria and ribososmes to produce plasma membrane proteins + energy for active loading
- sieve tube element and cc connected via plasmodesmata -> allows sucrose and assimilates to diffuse from cc into ste
- end of each sieve tube element has a sieve plate. perforations to allow movement of assimilates
127
sclerenchyma purpose
support to the stem
128
in the stem the xylem is
ON THE INSIDE
129
in the root the xylem is
star shaped w the phloem in between
130
in the leaf teh zylem is
at the top of the vascular bundle
131
main 3 plant physical defences
- waxy cuticle
- cellulose extra lignified
- callose deposition between cell wal and cell surface memrane
- tallose deposition in the xylem
132
fish v mammal circulatory blurt 6 marker
SIMILAR
- closed
- heart
- carry o2 w haemoglobin
FISH:
- single
- 2 chambers
- blood passes through TWO sets of capillaries before returning to heart
- lower BP
- so less efficient at syppling o2 to tissues
- but have a lower metabolic rate so is irrelevant
133
small lumenin artery ...
maintains pressure
134
b;lood clotting
- collagen exposed to blood + air causes clotting response
- cascade of enzymes
- SOLUBLE fibrinogen -> insoluble fibrin
- mesh, traps platelets
- clot prevents bleeding
- DRIES to form a scab
- prevents entry of pathogens
135
inflammation
- infection by pathogen
- mast cells detect + release histamine
- vasodilation of ARTERIOLEDS, more blood to area and hot
- capillary walls more leaky, more tissue fluid formed -> swelling
- morephagocytess to area for phagocytosis
136
lymph nodes swelling
after inflaamtion ....
- excess tissue fluid drained to LYMPH VESSELS
- pathogens in TF enter lymph fluid
- transportred in lymph system to lymph nodes
- phagocytosis etc causes swelling of lymph nodes
137
calibrate graticule and stage micrometer
- put stage micrometer on stage and focus lens
- align eyepeice graticule
- measure how many divisions in sm in 1 epu
138
why do insect hav e a tracheal system not rely on blood
- EFFICIENCY: diffusion of gases faster than liquids, distance too great to supply enough o2 for active tissues by diffusion etc etc
- OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM-> cannot easily direct blood flow to tissues in need
- blood flow affected by body movements ; transport of o2 unreliable
139
phagocyte adapttions (6)
- receptors on plasma memvrabe to bind to opsnonin / specfiic antigen
- lobed nucelus -> sqeueze through narrow capillary gaps
- well developed cytoskeleton, CHANGE SHAPE to engulf pathogen+ move around lysosomes
- many lysosomes containing many hyrodolytic enzymes
- many mitochondroa, lors of ar
-many ribosomes to synthesis enzymes
140
distinguish
monocytes
lymphocytes
neutrophils
in a blood smear
MONOCYTES: bilobed nucleus
NEUTROPHLIS: multi lobed nucleus
LYMPHOCYTES: very large dark nucleus
141
key word for artificial immunity
INJECTION
142
action of opsonins (2)
- binds to pathogen AND phagocyte
- increases likelihood of phagocytosis
143
3 reasons for such rapid MRSA increase
- over use of antibiotics
- fast generation time
- not completing course
144
Explain why the hydrostatic pressure of the blood drops as blood moves away from the
heart.
- more vessels
- larger total cross sectional area
- reduced resistance to blood flow
145
exocrine functions of liver
stores bile in gallbladder
146
if its a lipid based hormone, which molecule does it interact with
DNA (acts as a transcription factor)
147
why is standard deviation better than using range (2)
- less affected by anomaly
- takes into account all values in the data
148
why does the cell continue to secrete insulin despite no more glucose being taken in?
- still released as long as blood glucose levels are too high
- ATP still present so k+ channels still closed
- ca2+ channels still open so exocytosis still being caused
149
homeostasis
- maintenance of a constant internal environment
- within certain limits
- despite a changing environment
150
consideration when using stain...
use blotting paper to soak up the XS
151
if non specific immune response is there neutrophils
YES
152
yeast mecjnaosm of division
budding
153
cilia are made up of
microtubules
154
disadvatnage of mean
includes anomalis
155
anabolic reaction
making larger moleucles from smaller molecules (emdo)
156
catabolic
breaking down larger molecules to smaller molecules (exo)
157
calculating a mean improves
reliability
158
describe induced fit
- substrate binds to AS
- AS shape changes (conformational change)
- closer fit between AS and substrate
- more bonds form between AS sub
- ESC
- Bonds destabilised
- lower activation energy
- EPC
- products released
159
how isinflammation brought about
- antibody binds to mast cells
- release histamine, causing inflammation
160
why is mRNA shorter than DNA (2)
- mRNA codes for one gene
- DNA for allllll
161
parasite (3)
- lives IN host
- takes its nutrition
- harms host
- gets protection from hody
- allows spread to a new host
162
how does plasmodium bypass primary defences (2)
- transmitted by mosquito vector
- pierces the skin
163
water moves
- osmosis into RHC
- apoplast / asymplast
- across root cortex (epidermis)
164
respiratory substrate defintion (2)
- broken down
- prpduce ATP
165
what determines energy of a respiratory substrate
number of c-h bonds
166
advantage of ATP as energy srouce
- 1 step process (immediate) atp -> adp
167
Suggest one reason for an RQ greater than 1 in an organism respiring aerobically
carbohydrates converted to lipids
168
describe SLP
- the phosphate comes from a compound in krebs
- adp + pi = atp
169
why does facilitated diffusion using carrier protins NOT require energy
- particles have their own KE
- Down concentration gradeitn
170
describe structure RER
- phospholipid bilayer
- network of flattened sacs (cisternae)
- ribososmes attached on outside
171
ethanol does what to phospholipid bilayer?
dissolves
172
how to reduce uncertainty
use more PRECISE equipment
173
epxlian turgidity
- water enters Vacuole by osmosis
- pushes against cell wall
- turgor pressure
- creating turgid cells
174
purpose of glycoproteins (4)
1. antigens
2.recognition of cells as self or non self
3.cell signalling
4.act as binding site for hormone/drug
175
cell signalling defintion
cells working otgether
to bring aobut a response
176
how do LARGE substances go across pplbilayer
- CARRIER proteins
- endocytosis
177
describe cell signalling (6)
- hormone secreted
- glycoprotein acts as receptor.
- specific chape complementar to that of hormone, so can BIND
- brings about response eg activation of secdonary messenger eg CAMP
178
role of membranes WITHIN. acell
- selective barrier
- compartmentalisation
- separates contents of org eg hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes
- creation of concentration gradient
- site for eg attachemnt of enzymes
179
are there hormones in tissue fluid
yes
180
3 diff lymph and TF
1. lymph less oxygen and nutrients
2. lymph more fatty acids
3. lymh more WBC
181
final electron acceptor photosynthesis
nadp
182
describe how to dissect insect and view
- cut open exoskeleton
- stain tracheoles with METHYLENE BLUE
183
why is there always residual volume
- trachea held open by cartilage
- surfactant in alveoli
184
distinguish between lymphocytes and monocytes blood smear
monocyte bigger
monocyte kidney bean shaped nucleus
185
what do hox genes actually code for
- transcription factors
- which bind to promotor/operator to regulate gene expression
- proteins eg the enzymes for apoptosis coded for
186
problem with biologucal defintion of species
- doesn taccount for asexual
- phylogenic can be used for extinct species, fossils etc
187
conservation defintieon (2)
- human intervention
- habitat changed/restored
188
where is mineral ion balance maintained in kidney
DCT
189
range of n if greater species evenness
smaller
190
benefit plant bd on agriculture
- more genetic diversoty
- more likely to survive changing environment eg pathogens
- selective breeding
- pollinators
191
why do we use the 3 domain system vs 5 kingdom
1. differences bewteen bacteria and archaea eg in the cell surface membrane, DNA
2. reflects evolutionary history better
3. there are fundemental differences between eularyotes and prokaryotes
4. eukaryotes all have 80s ribosomes
192
limiting factor
determines rate at low levels
193
proof for random error
- large SD
194
things other than biochemical evidence used for classification
- fossil record
- anatomy
195
why are people worried about reintroducing species x?
- might not be adapted to the conditions
- habitat might have changed
- might bring disease
- might OUTCOMPETE native populationz
196
why is DNA rep demiconservative ? (2)
- one strand from og DNA and one new strand
- the old strand acts as a template for the new. and both old act as templats
197
in benedicts colorimeter, more transmission =
more sugar
198
compare micropropagation and tissue culture (3)
- micro needs more expensive equipment
- required more staff
- produces more offspring
199
advantages of plant clones
1. can resproduce platns that cant asexually
2. quickker than growing from seed
3. can be done at any time of year
200
which is more likely to make secondary metabolites
batch
201
advatnages of microorganisms lfor biotech
- less land (take up little space)
-!!!!!! less cost as less energy as lower temperature and less space!!!!!!
- NON SEASONAL PRODUCTION
- !!!!!rapid growth/reproduction!!!!!!
- !!!! few ethical concerns!!!!!
- (can be grown on waste material from other
processes)
202
why flame the neck of the bottles of brtoh
heating causes air to expand so pushes away other bacteria, preventing contaminaion
203
considerations befroe batch culture
- aseptic techniques
- pH buffer
- optimum temperature
- supply with nutrients (oxygen
204
when considering which plate to use post serial dilutions what to consider?
- far enough apart to be countable
- largest number of colonies possible:
- more representative
- lower error as fewer serial dilutions
- less affected by anomalies
205
immoblilsed enzymes allow fofr ...
use of hgiiher temperature so faster rate so incrased yield
206
why are immobilised enzymes more active at extremes?(2)
- less likely to denature, more stable
- bonds less easily disrupted
- supported by matrix, membrane, surface etc
207
disadvantage immobilised enzymes
- higher setup cost
- immobilisation method may change tertiary 3d structure of enzyme
208
use of animal cell cloning(4)
- produce best xyz for farmers
- save endangered animals
- grow tissues for transplant
- cloning gm animals
209
primary metabolites are
- produced all the time
normal metaboli / growth c product]eg glucose
210
if rubisco denatured effect on phosotynehsis
- less LIR
- eventually less LDR as NADP not regenreated, needed as final electron acceptor of ncp
211
if stomata are less open effect on photosynthesis
- less co2, which is needed for LIR
212
chlorophyll can be damaged by
high temperatures
213
example of things to keep constant in biodiversty surveys
- same time of year/day etc
- SAME SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
214
taxonomy
study of the PRINCIPLES of classification
215
is cellulose digestible
yes
by enzymes
216
cellulose flexibility
inflexible
217
glycogen solubility
insoluble
doesnt affect water potential of cells
218
even more than cytochrome c, what can u sequence the base strcuture of
ribosomal rna
highly conserved
219
role of RNA polymerase
- joins RNA nucleotdies
- creates phosphodiester bonds
220
anticodon is complementary to
mRNA, binds
- same as the DNA just with base U
221
reasons for aseptic technique
- prevent contamination
- prevent entry of unwanted MICROORGANISMS
222
methods for asepctic techniques in the bacteria experiment in the lab
- sterilise surfaces
- open bunsen flame, the hot air expands and pushes the air up, preventing microoganisms entering
- flame the neck of the flask as you open it
223
why use a log scale for y axis (2)
- difference in numbers too big
- eg...
224
explain the 'death ' phase on the bacterial growth graph
- death rate greater than reproduction rate
- increased level of waste products eg co2, decrease in pH
- increased competition for nutrients as nutrients start to run out
225
how can a histogram show that the variation is polygenic? (2)
- continuous
- normal distriubiton (bell shaped curve)
226
need for a cooling system in continuous?
- high temp could denature the enzymes in the microorganisms
- maintain the optimum teperature
- reduce temp as respiratin exothermic produces heat
227
missense
different amino acid
- can be ok bc its in a non functional part of the protein eg not in the active site
228
how do erythrocytes respire
- anaerobically
- no mitochondria
229
things transported in plants
- sucrose + assimilates (source to sink)
- water + mineral ions (from roots)
230
Suggest one advantage of using a computer to collect data.
- NO EFFECT OF HUMAN error
- easier data analysis
231
components of blood
Plasma — transports substances (like glucose, hormones, ions, heat).
Erythrocytes — carry oxygen (as oxyhaemoglobin).
WBC — defend against pathogens.
Platelets — blood clotting.
232
tf vs blood vs lymph
Blood: Everything (RBCs, WBCs, platelets, proteins)
Tissue Fluid :Plasma minus RBCs and plasma proteins
Lymph: Tissue fluid + lots of lymphocytes and antibodies
233
thin ventricle on right side prevents
damage to lung capillaries
234
how does Hb act asa buffer
Hydrogen ions (H⁺) associate (bind) with haemoglobin.
This forms haemoglobinic acid (HHb).
Haemoglobin acts as a buffer to maintain the pH of the blood.3
Binding of H⁺ ions prevents large changes in pH which could denature proteins.
235
describe swelling and redness
- infection
- mast cells release histamine
- arterioles dilate to increase BF ot area
- more wbc delivered to area
- phagocytosis
236
runners /stolons
ABOVE GROUND
- roots / shoots form away from parent plant
237
how to duplicate a bulb
- divide
- plant
238
micropropagation method
- remove meristem tissues from shoot
- create explants
- dip in ethanol to sterilise
- place on agar gel containing glucose for respiration
- allows cells to divide + form a callus
- subdivide the callus into smaller clumps
- add on agar with auxins and cytokinins
- transfer to compost
239
typ 1 diabetes is waht type of disease
autoimmune
240
stem cells are... (potent)
MULTI
241
how to make serial dilutions more accurate
- mix
- use a clea syringe for every plate
- repeat and mean
- reduce number of dilutions TO REDUCE RANDOM ERROR
242
desccribe the structure of the RER
- phospholipid bilayre
- folded to create CISTERNAE
- ribosomes attached
- membrane continuous with nuelcaer envelope
243
why might diffusion be faster in living cells?
cytoskeleton
244
wy is it an advantage for bacteria to have plasmids?
- can take up a useful gene
- eg for antibiotic resistance
- faster than mutation
245
ecosystem defintion
all the living organisms and non-living components
(in a habitat), and their interactions ;
246
eg of human activiites (deforestation and introduced species)
- deforestation = habitat destruction, loss of biod
- introduced species = competition, predation
247
biotech is
use of (micro)organisms for , commercial process FOR HUMAN BENEFIT
248
problem with contamination
- microorginasms eg bacteria
- competiton eg for nutrients
249
gibberellins
- stimulates expression of amylase and maltose genes
- starch hydrolysed to glucose
- ore respiration, more growth, stem elongation
250
High cytokinin:auxin ratio
SHOOT formation
251
low cytokinin:auxin ratio
ROOT formation
252
how can TREES vegetative propogation
- root suckers
- from meristem tissue
-
253
time difference primary and scondary immune response
secondary is lolnger
254
how do cofactors work
cofactors / coenzymes / prosthetic groups ;
bind to , enzyme / active site / allosteric site ;
(cofactors / coenzymes , bind to enzyme) temporarily ;
change , shape / tertiary structure , of active site ;
affect charges on active site ;
bind to / interact with , substrate ;
increase (likelihood of) , substrate binding to active site /
ESC formation ;
255
why is the 3 domains better than the 5 kingdoms system
idea that 3 domains fits phylogeny better ;
(there are) key / many / fundamental / important ,
differences between , bacteria / prokaryotes ,
and , eukaryotes / other (4) kingdoms ;
eukaryotes all have , nucleus / membrane-bound
organelles / 80S ribosomes ;
(there are) key / many / fundamental / important ,
differences between bacteria and archaea ;
bacteria and archaea have different , cell membrane /
flagella / (named) enzymes / transcription /
DNA replication / RNA ;
256
stabilising selection
Stabilising selection maintains the phenotype around the mean / average.
Selection against extreme phenotypes.
Selection for *intermediate* phenotypes.
Occurs in unchanging / stable environments.
Example: Human birth mass – very low or very high birth weights are selected against.
257
what causes oncotic pressure in tf
imbalance of large plasma proteins between blood and tissue fluid results in oncotic pressure
258
adaptation s of sinusoid cellls
thin / flat , cells
short diffusion distance
OR
fenestrated / AW
increases permeability
259
overlapping error bars means
any diffferences may not be significatn
260
what happens when hypothalamus increases the temperature set point
- fever
- body temp increases
- to kill pathogens
- faster immune response, more antibodies produced
261
how do stem cells produce new cells
- undifferentiated cells that have the capacity to diffeentiate into any type of cell
- divide by mitosis
- differentiation is regulated by specific genes turned on and off
262
metaphase checkpoint makes sure
correct number of chromosomes in each cell
263
is cytokinesis interphase
no
264
cells spend most of their time in which part of interphas
G1
265
what can u deduce if the cell is never in msgs
- has left cell cycle
- no more division
- is alrady specialisec
266
why do asexual rep
genetically identical offspring ✓
offspring produced , rapidly / in large
numbers ✓
(all) offspring will , find conditions
favourable / have same adaptation
267
average diameter prokaryote
0.5 - 5 micrometres
268
average diameter eukaryote
20-40 micrometres
269
Suggest why no anticoagulant is added to the blood towards the end of a dialysis
session.
to allow the blood to clot normally back in the body
270
why can u use adult stem cells
- multipotent
- can become any cell type WITHIN (and then specify tissue)
271
what can your shape not be if u wana divide
ASYMMETRICAL
272
standard deviation with RANDOM ERROR
very big
small for systematic
273
error bars
+- standard deviation above and below
274
explain the liver + proteins + bile
- liver has a huge blood supply
- clears proteins (deamination etc)
- proteins secreted into bile
275
continuous distrivution
- pokygenic
- genes and environemnt
- bell shaped curve
- has to be measured, cant be counted
276
+ antibiotics in cattle
- reduces disease
- reduces risk of tranmsitting disease to human
277
how doe sphagocytosis begin
- receptr on phagocyte binds to antigen
- OR phagocyte binds to constant region on opsonon
278
muscle fatigue is caused by
build up of lactic acid
bio
flashcards
Decks in class (31)
# Cards
-
3.1 - Exchange surfaces and breathing72
-
3.1.4 spirometer18
-
2.1- cells and microscopes74
-
2.2.1-5- bio mols- water+carbohydrates56
-
2.2.6-14 biomols - lipids, proteins, inorganic ions118
-
3.2 transport in animals173
-
2.1.3 nucleotides and nucleic acids55
-
2.4 enzymes35
-
2.5 cell membranes38
-
4.1 Communicable diseases, disease prevention and the immune system100
-
Red Blood Cells4
-
3.3 plant transport80
-
WRONG ppqs278
-
fish and insects quizlet18
-
6.1.1 cellular control88
-
5.1.2 excretion as an example of homeostatic control92
-
2.1.6 cell division, diversity, organisation53
-
5.6 photosynthesis57
-
5.7 respiration58
-
4.2 biodiversity75
-
4.3 classification and evolution51
-
5.4 hormonal communication48
-
5.1 communication and homeostasis28
-
6.1.2 patterns of inheritance58
-
6.1.3 manipulating genomes52
-
5.5 ANIMAL responses71
-
5.5 plant responses33
-
5.3 neuronal communication52
-
6.4 cloning and biotechnology37
-
6.3.1 ecosystems43
-
6.3.2 populations and sustainability22
