1
Q
What is the definition of development?
A
The pattern of change beginning at conception and continuing throughout the life span.
Development involves growth as well as decline brought on by aging and dying.
2
Q
What is the life-span perspective?
A
The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.
It emphasizes developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood.
3
Q
What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective?
A
- Lifelong
- Multidimensional
- Multidirectional
- Plastic
- Multidisciplinary
- Contextual
- Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
- Co-construction of biological, sociocultural, and individual factors
4
Q
What is life expectancy in the United States?
A
About 77 years.
The upper boundary of the human life span is 122 years.
5
Q
True or False: The rapid increase in life expectancy has only positive implications for older people.
A
False.
It has negative implications for quality of life, as society tends to reflect the needs of younger people.
6
Q
Define normative age-graded influences.
A
Similar influences for individuals in a particular age group, such as starting school or puberty.
7
Q
What are nonnormative life events?
A
Unusual occurrences that have a major life impact, such as early pregnancy or losing a parent as a child.
8
Q
What is the nature-nurture issue?
A
The debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature (biological inheritance) or nurture (environmental experiences).
9
Q
What are the four developmental periods?
A
- Prenatal period: conception to birth
- Infancy: birth to 18 or 24 months
- Toddler: 18 months to 3 years
- Early childhood: 3 to 5 years
10
Q
What does successful aging refer to?
A
Individuals maintaining positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development longer in life.
11
Q
What are the three developmental patterns of aging?
A
- Normal aging
- Pathological aging
- Successful aging
12
Q
What is the stability-change issue?
A
The debate about the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change.
13
Q
What does chronological age refer to?
A
The number of years that have elapsed since birth.
14
Q
Fill in the blank: _______ refers to an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with people of the same chronological age.
A
[Psychological age]
15
Q
What is the significance of age in relation to happiness?
A
Adults tend to be happier as they age due to stronger relationships, less pressure to achieve, and more leisure time.
16
Q
What do psychoanalytic theories emphasize?
A
Development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion, with early experiences with parents being crucial.
17
Q
What are the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual development?
A
- Oral Stage: Birth to 1½ Years
- Anal Stage: 1½ to 3 Years
- Phallic Stage: 3 to 6 Years
- Latency Stage: 6 Years to Puberty
- Genital Stage: Puberty Onward
18
Q
What is the role of the scientific method in developmental research?
A
A four-step approach to obtain accurate information: conceptualize a process or problem, collect data, analyze the data, and draw conclusions.
19
Q
What is the continuity-discontinuity issue?
A
The debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
20
Q
What does socioemotional processes refer to?
A
Changes in an individual’s relationships, emotions, and personality.
21
Q
Define the term ‘ethnicity’.
A
A characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language.
22
Q
What are the four ages described by life-span developmentalists focusing on adult development?
A
- First age: childhood and adolescence
- Second age: prime adulthood (ages 20 to 59)
- Third age: approximately 60 to 79
- Fourth age: approximately 80 years and older
23
Q
What is the importance of studying life-span development?
A
- Prepares individuals for responsibility
- Provides insight into individual lives
- Offers knowledge about aging
24
Q
What are the five stages of psychosexual development according to Freud?
A
- Oral Stage
- Anal Stage
- Phallic Stage
- Latency Stage
- Genital Stage
These stages are characterized by the focus of pleasure and conflict resolution at each stage.
25
What is the focus of pleasure during the Oral Stage?
The mouth
## Footnote
This stage occurs from birth to 1½ years.
26
What is the focus of pleasure during the Anal Stage?
The anus
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 1½ to 3 years.
27
What is the focus of pleasure during the Phallic Stage?
The genitals
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 3 to 6 years.
28
What happens during the Latency Stage?
Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 6 years to puberty.
29
What characterizes the Genital Stage?
A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family
## Footnote
This stage begins at puberty.
30
What does Freud mean by fixation in psychosexual development?
An individual may become locked in at a stage of development if the need for pleasure is undergratified or overgratified
## Footnote
This can affect adult personality.
31
What is the primary motivation for behavior according to Erikson?
Social in nature
## Footnote
Erikson emphasized that both early and later experiences are important.
32
How many stages are in Erikson's psychosocial theory?
Eight stages
## Footnote
Each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved.
33
What is the crisis in the first stage of Erikson's theory?
Trust versus mistrust
## Footnote
This stage occurs in the first year of infancy.
34
What is the crisis in the second stage of Erikson's theory?
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 1 to 3 years.
35
What is the crisis in the third stage of Erikson's theory?
Initiative versus guilt
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 3 to 5 years.
36
What is the crisis in the fourth stage of Erikson's theory?
Industry versus inferiority
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 6 years to puberty.
37
What is the crisis in the fifth stage of Erikson's theory?
Identity versus identity confusion
## Footnote
This stage occurs from 10 to 20 years.
38
What is the crisis in the sixth stage of Erikson's theory?
Intimacy versus isolation
## Footnote
This stage occurs in the twenties and thirties.
39
What is the crisis in the seventh stage of Erikson's theory?
Generativity versus stagnation
## Footnote
This stage occurs in the forties and fifties.
40
What is the crisis in the eighth stage of Erikson's theory?
Integrity versus despair
## Footnote
This stage occurs from sixties to death.
41
What are some contributions of psychoanalytic theories?
* Emphasis on a developmental framework
* Importance of family relationships
* Focus on unconscious aspects of the mind
## Footnote
These contributions have influenced various fields in psychology.
42
What are some criticisms of psychoanalytic theories?
* Lack of scientific support
* Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings
* Negative image of people
## Footnote
These criticisms highlight the limitations of Freud's theories.
43
What are the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?
* Sensorimotor stage
* Preoperational stage
* Concrete operational stage
* Formal operational stage
## Footnote
These stages are characterized by different types of cognitive abilities.
44
What occurs during the Sensorimotor Stage?
The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions
## Footnote
This stage lasts from birth to 2 years.
45
What occurs during the Preoperational Stage?
The child begins to represent the world with words and images, reflecting increased symbolic thinking
## Footnote
This stage lasts from 2 to 7 years.
46
What occurs during the Concrete Operational Stage?
The child can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets
## Footnote
This stage lasts from 7 to 11 years.
47
What occurs during the Formal Operational Stage?
The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways
## Footnote
This stage lasts from 11 years through adulthood.
48
What does Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory emphasize?
How culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
## Footnote
Vygotsky believed these elements are inseparable from cognitive growth.
49
What is the focus of the information-processing theory?
Emphasizes how individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information
## Footnote
This theory is central to understanding memory and thinking processes.
50
What are some contributions of cognitive theories?
* Positive view of development
* Emphasis on active construction of understanding
## Footnote
These contributions highlight the role of cognition in development.
51
What are some criticisms of cognitive theories?
* Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages
* Inadequate attention to individual variations
## Footnote
These criticisms suggest that cognitive development may be more complex than initially proposed.
52
What is Skinner's operant conditioning?
Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes brought about by rewards and punishments
## Footnote
Skinner's theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior.
53
What does Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasize?
* Behavior
* Environment
* Cognition
## Footnote
These factors are seen as key in development.
54
What is the relationship between behavior, person/cognitive, and environmental factors according to Bandura?
They are reciprocal
## Footnote
This means they influence each other continuously.
55
What does ethology stress about behavior?
Behavior is strongly influenced by biology and is tied to evolution
## Footnote
Experiences during critical or sensitive periods are also emphasized.
56
What is a critical period in ethology?
A certain, very early point at which imprinting must take place
## Footnote
This concept is important in understanding attachment behaviors.
57
What is a sensitive period in ethology?
The time attachment should optimally occur
## Footnote
This period is crucial for healthy social development.
58
What are the five environmental systems in Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory?
* Microsystem
* Mesosystem
* Exosystem
* Macrosystem
* Chronosystem
## Footnote
These systems illustrate the various layers of environment affecting development.
59
What is the microsystem in ecological theory?
The setting in which the individual lives and helps to construct
## Footnote
This is the most immediate environment affecting development.
60
What is the mesosystem in ecological theory?
The relations between microsystems or connections between contexts
## Footnote
This system highlights the interactions between different environments.
61
What is the exosystem in ecological theory?
Links between a social setting in which the individual has a passive role and their immediate context
## Footnote
This system includes broader influences that indirectly affect the individual.
62
What is the macrosystem in ecological theory?
The culture in which individuals live
## Footnote
This system reflects the overarching societal influences.
63
What is the chronosystem in ecological theory?
The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course
## Footnote
This system emphasizes the importance of time in development.
64
What does an eclectic theoretical orientation involve?
Selecting from each theory whatever is considered its best features
## Footnote
This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of development.
65
What are some methods for collecting data in research?
* Observation
* Survey and interview
* Standardized tests
* Case studies
* Physiological measures
## Footnote
These methods provide diverse ways to gather information about development.
66
What is the difference between descriptive and correlational research?
Descriptive research observes and records behavior; correlational research determines the strength of the relationship between events or characteristics
## Footnote
Correlation does not imply causation.
67
What is experimental research designed to study?
Causality
## Footnote
This type of research manipulates one or more factors to observe effects.
68
What is the independent variable in an experiment?
A manipulated, influential factor that is a potential cause
## Footnote
This variable is altered to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
69
What is the dependent variable in an experiment?
A factor that can change in response to changes in the independent variable
## Footnote
This variable is measured to assess the impact of the independent variable.
70
What is a cross-sectional approach in research?
A research strategy that compares individuals of different ages simultaneously
## Footnote
This method allows for insights into age-related differences.
71
What is a longitudinal approach in research?
A research strategy where the same individuals are studied over a period of time
## Footnote
This method is useful for observing changes over time.
72
What are cohort effects?
Characteristics determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than their actual age
## Footnote
These effects can influence research outcomes.
73
What is the approach that studies the same individuals over a period of time?
Cohort approach
## Footnote
This research strategy often spans several years or more.
74
What are cohort effects?
Characteristics determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than actual age
## Footnote
These effects can influence research outcomes and understanding of development.
75
What defines Generation Z/Post-Millennials?
Individuals born in 1997 and later
## Footnote
Known for being immersed in technology, social media, and being more ethnically diverse.
76
What are the two main characteristics of Generation Z?
* Connection to technology
* Ethnic diversity
77
What defines Millennials?
Individuals born in 1980 and later
## Footnote
They are known for being better educated than previous generations.
78
What describes Generation X?
Individuals born between 1965 and 1980
## Footnote
Often characterized as lacking an identity and savvy loners.
79
What defines Baby Boomers?
Individuals born between 1946 and 1964
## Footnote
This generation represents a spike in births after World War II.
80
What characterizes the Silent Generation?
Individuals born between 1928 and 1945
## Footnote
They are often described as conformists and civic-minded.
81
What is informed consent in ethical research?
Participants must know what their participation will involve and must be able to withdraw at will
## Footnote
This is a fundamental ethical principle in research.
82
What does confidentiality mean in the context of ethical research?
Data must be kept confidential and, when possible, anonymous
## Footnote
Protecting participants' identities is crucial.
83
What is debriefing in psychological research?
Participants should be informed of the study's purpose and methods after its completion
## Footnote
This helps clarify any misunderstandings about the research.
84
When is deception allowed in psychological research?
When necessary, provided it does not harm participants and they are debriefed afterwards
## Footnote
Ethical guidelines allow for this under specific conditions.
85
What is gender bias in research?
Conclusions drawn about females’ attitudes and behaviors from studies conducted only with males
## Footnote
This can lead to inaccurate generalizations.
86
What is cultural and ethnic bias in life-span development research?
Research has not always included individuals from diverse ethnic groups
## Footnote
This can skew findings and limit applicability.
87
What is ethnic gloss?
Superficial use of an ethnic label that portrays an ethnic group as more homogeneous than it really is
## Footnote
This can lead to oversimplified views of complex identities.
