1
Q
What is the policy cycle?
A
- Identifying societal goals
- Diagnosing social problems
- Prioritizing societal problems
- Identifying appropriate institutions for action
- Formulating policy solutions
- Evaluating competing solutions
- Implementing policy
- Enforcing and monitoring policy change
- Evaluating policy successes and failures
- Making revisions
- Killing programs as needed
2
Q
What defines the state according to Lowi’s theory?
A
Power is the defining characteristic of the state
3
Q
How does government use authority in policymaking according to Lowi?
A
Through positive and negative sanctions to influence behavior
4
Q
What are distributive policies?
A
Policies that provide benefits to large groups at the expense of all taxpayers.
5
Q
What are redistributive policies?
A
Policies that transfer wealth from one group to another to ensure a minimum standard of living.
6
Q
What are regulatory policies?
A
Policies that control the behavior of individuals or organizations through rules and restrictions.
7
Q
What are constituent policies?
A
Policies that structure or organize the government itself.
8
Q
What is rational choice theory in policymaking?
A
The idea that policymakers make deliberate decisions based on cost-benefit analyses
9
Q
What is incrementalism according to Lindblom (1959)?
A
Policy change happens gradually through small, negotiated adjustments to the status quo
10
Q
What is punctuated equilibrium according to Baumgartner and Jones (1993)?
A
Policy remains stable for long periods but shifts dramatically in response to crises or major events.
11
Q
What causes policy change according to the contextual model
A
Socioeconomic, historical, and environmental conditions; shocks; public opinion; and government interactions.
12
Q
What is policy drift?
A
Change in a policy’s effect due to stagnation and failure to adapt, rather than formal revision.
13
Q
What causes policy drift?
A
Political gridlock, resistance to change, and mismatched rates of social vs. political change
14
Q
What are the consequences of policy drift?
A
Policies become less effective over time and can be exploited by informed actors.
15
Q
What is rational self-interest?
A
People act when benefits outweigh costs and abstain when costs outweigh benefits
16
Q
What is utility in rational choice theory?
A
The satisfaction or “jollies” an individual gains from an action
17
Q
What is risk in decision-making?
A
The uncertainty that actual costs or benefits may differ from expectations
18
Q
What is bounded rationality?
A
People make “good enough” decisions due to limited information and cognitive capacity
19
Q
What is action bias
A
The tendency to prefer doing something over doing nothing, even when inaction might be better
20
Q
What is loss aversion?
A
The tendency for losses to feel more painful than equivalent gains feel good
21
Q
What is the endowment effect?
A
The tendency to overvalue items we own
22
Q
What is time/hyperbolic discounting?
A
The preference for immediate gratification over long-term benefits
23
Q
What is false consensus bias?
A
The belief that others share our opinions or behaviors more than they actually do
24
Q
What is anchoring bias?
A
Relying too heavily on an initial reference point when making decisions
25
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to seek information that supports our existing beliefs
26
What is state paternalism?
When the government restricts individual liberty for people’s own good
27
What are examples of coercive paternalism
Social Security contributions, helmet laws, seatbelt laws.
28
What is soft or indirect coercion?
Policies that shape incentives or limit options without removing choice entirely
29
What is a nudge in public policy?
A change in the choice architecture that influences decisions without restricting freedom
30
What are examples of policy nudges?
Auto-enrollment in retirement plans, graphic cigarette warnings, or putting healthy food at eye level.
31
What does the “Tragedy of the Commons” describe?
When individuals acting in their own self-interest deplete a shared resource, harming the group as a whole
32
Why does rational individual behavior often lead to irrational group behavior?
Because individuals prioritize personal benefit over collective welfare
33
What is the Prisoner’s Dilemma?
A situation where individuals acting rationally for themselves produce worse outcomes for the group.
34
What is the key insight from the Prisoner’s Dilemma?
Without trust or coordination, self-interested decisions can make everyone worse off.
35
What policy areas resemble the Prisoner’s Dilemma?
Climate negotiations, trade tariffs, and arms races.
36
What is the War of Attrition?
A conflict where both sides endure escalating costs until one gives up, even when the cost outweighs the benefit.
37
What causes the War of Attrition to continue longer than rationally expected?
Asymmetric information — each side doesn’t know how much the other is willing to endure
38
What are real-world examples of the War of Attrition?
Labor strikes, government shutdowns, long political campaigns, and legal battles
39
What is the Public Goods Game?
A game showing that collective cooperation produces better outcomes, but individuals are incentivized to free ride
40
What does the Public Goods Game reveal about human behavior?
The individually rational choice (to withhold) often produces collectively irrational outcomes (under-provision).
41
What are real-life examples of public goods?
Public infrastructure, scientific research, and disaster relief
42
What are the main causes of collective irrationality?
Asymmetric information, lack of credibility, and lack of accountability
43
What is asymmetric information?
When one party has more or better information than others
44
What is lack of credibility?
When parties cannot trust others’ commitments or threats
45
What is lack of accountability?
When there is no enforcement mechanism to ensure compliance.
46
What are the consequences of collective irrationality?
Free riding, under-provision of goods, and one-off interactions.
47
What is free riding?
Benefiting from a collective good without contributing to it.
48
What is under-provision?
When collective goods are not provided due to insufficient individual contributions.
49
What are one-off interactions?
Situations where collective cooperation happens only once due to short-sightedness.
50
What are coercive policy tools?
Mandates and bans that require or prohibit specific behaviors
51
What are examples of coercive mandates?
Vaccine requirements, emissions limits, and handwashing rules for workers.
52
What are examples of coercive bans?
Smoking bans, single-use plastic bans, and import restrictions
53
What are non-coercive policy tools?
Incentives (“carrots and sticks”), property rights, and enforceable contracts.
54
What are examples of incentives?
Carbon taxes, subsidies, fines, and tax credits.
55
What are property rights used for in policy
To assign control or liability, encouraging investment and accountability
56
What are nudges used for?
To make cooperation easier or more attractive without mandating it
57
What are examples of nudges?
Recycling bins in classrooms, donor recognition plaques, and simplified tax forms
58
What is the individual rationale for private property rights?
They encourage individuals to invest in and maintain resources
59
What is the collective rationale for private property rights
Society benefits from innovation and responsible stewardship
60
What is the purpose of public property?
To provide shared access to resources like parks or infrastructure that would be inaccessible privately.
61
What does establishing liability in property rights achieve?
It discourages harmful behavior and negative externalities
62
What is a contract?
A legally binding agreement defining rights, obligations, and remedies between parties
63
Why are enforceable contracts important?
They build trust, reduce transaction costs, and promote cooperation.
64
What is an externality?
An unintended side effect of an activity that affects third parties
65
What is a negative externality?
When an action imposes costs on others (e.g., pollution)
66
What is a positive externality?
When an action benefits others (e.g., vaccinations).
67
What is a market failure?
When the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently or fairly.
68
What is a natural monopoly?
A market where one provider is more efficient than multiple competitors (e.g., utilities)
69
Why does the state provide security?
Because it has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force to protect citizens
70
What are non-exclusive goods?
Goods available to all regardless of ownership (e.g., public education)
71
What are exclusive goods?
Goods only available to certain members or owners (e.g., a private gym).
72
What is effectiveness in policy evaluation
Whether the policy achieved its intended goals
73
What is efficiency in policy evaluation?
Whether the benefits of a policy justify its costs
74
What is the difference between intent and outcome?
Intent is what the policy aimed to do; outcome is what it actually did
75
What does “compliance” refer to in policy success?
The degree to which actors follow the rules or objectives of a policy.
76
When is compliance most likely?
When rules are clear, decision-makers are united, and implementation is well-resourced.
77
What is cost-benefit analysis?
A method to determine if a policy’s benefits outweigh its costs.
78
What does specificity measure in a policy?
How directly the policy addresses the root cause of a problem
79
What is scalability in policymaking?
The ability to expand a policy without losing effectiveness or raising costs
80
What is temporality in policy evaluation?
The time it takes for a policy to achieve its goals
81
What is durability in policy evaluation?
Whether a policy produces lasting, adaptable results
82
What is coordination in policy evaluation?
How well a policy aligns or conflicts with other policies
83
What is equality in public policy?
The even distribution of resources and responsibilities across society.
84
What is equity in public policy?
The fair (not necessarily equal) distribution of resources and responsibilities.
85
What is equality of opportunity?
Ensuring all individuals have the same chances to succeed regardless of background
86
What is equality of process?
Guaranteeing equal participation and influence in policymaking
87
What is equality of outcome?
Aiming to reduce disparities in actual living conditions and achievements
88
What are examples of equality of opportunity?
Public education funding, anti-discrimination laws, and healthcare access
89
What are examples of equality of process?
Equal voting rights, transparent decision-making, and fair public consultations
90
What are examples of equality of outcome?
Progressive taxation, welfare programs, and universal healthcare
91
What is horizontal equity?
Treating people in similar circumstances equally
92
What is vertical equity?
Treating people differently based on their ability to bear costs or need for support.
93
What is intergenerational equity?
Distributing opportunities and costs fairly across generations
94
Why is equity significant in policymaking?
It ensures fairness, protects civil rights, and directs resources to those most in need
95
What is group behavior in public policy?
The study of how individuals act when they are part of a collective pursuing shared goals.
96
What is a collective action problem?
A situation where individuals benefit from a shared good but have incentives to free ride on others’ efforts
97
What is the free rider problem?
When individuals avoid contributing to a collective good while still benefiting from it.
98
What does the “Tragedy of the Commons” describe?
Overuse of a shared resource because individuals act in their self-interest rather than conserving it for the group
99
What are examples of the Tragedy of the Commons?
Overfishing, pollution, deforestation, and overgrazing
100
What solutions can prevent the Tragedy of the Commons?
Government regulation, privatization, or community management agreements
101
What is an externality in public policy?
A cost or benefit of an activity experienced by third parties not directly involved in the transaction
102
What is a positive externality?
A benefit enjoyed by others, like education or vaccination.
103
What is a negative externality?
A cost imposed on others, such as pollution or secondhand smoke.
104
Why are externalities considered market failures?
Because private markets don’t account for social costs or benefits, leading to overproduction or underproduction
105
How can government correct externalities?
Through taxes, subsidies, or regulations that internalize external costs or benefits
106
What is equality of opportunity?
The idea that everyone should have the same chance to succeed regardless of background.
107
What is an example of a policy promoting equality of opportunity?
Public education or anti-discrimination laws
108
What is equality of process?
Ensuring that the procedures and rules are fair and applied consistently to all individuals
109
What is equality of outcome?
When policies aim to produce similar living conditions or results for all groups, not just equal chances.
110
What is equity in public policy?
Fairness — giving people what they need to reach equal outcomes, which may mean unequal treatment
111
How does equality differ from equity?
Equality treats everyone the same; equity adjusts support based on individual or group needs
112
What policy tools can promote equity?
Progressive taxation, targeted subsidies, or affirmative action.
113
What is policy evaluation?
The systematic assessment of whether a policy achieves its intended outcomes.
114
What is a policy output?
The immediate product of government action, such as services delivered or funds distributed.
115
What is a policy outcome?
The long-term impact or change produced by a policy
116
What is efficiency in policy evaluation?
Whether a policy achieves its goals with the least cost or waste
117
What is effectiveness in policy evaluation?
Whether a policy achieves its stated objectives.
118
What is equity in policy evaluation?
Whether the policy distributes costs and benefits fairly among different groups.
119
What is legitimacy in policy evaluation?
The degree to which a policy is accepted as appropriate or just by the public
120
What is political feasibility?
The likelihood that a policy will gain and maintain sufficient political support
121
What is implementation fidelity?
The extent to which a policy is executed as originally intended.
122
What is policy succession?
When an existing policy evolves or is replaced with a new one
123
What is policy maintenance?
Making small adjustments to keep a policy functioning effectively.
124
What is policy innovation
The creation of a new policy or program to address an emerging problem
125
What is policy termination?
When a policy or program is intentionally ended because it is no longer needed or effective.
126
What are common barriers to policy termination?
Bureaucratic inertia, interest group resistance, and fear of job losses.
127
What is coercion in public policy?
When the government uses force, threats, or restrictions to make individuals act in certain ways
128
What is direct coercion?
When the state interferes directly with personal choices or behavior for an individual’s own good.
129
What is an example of direct coercion?
Mandatory helmet or seatbelt laws.
130
What is indirect coercion?
When the state shapes incentives or options without completely removing choice
131
What are examples of indirect coercion?
Sin taxes, mandatory health insurance, or professional licensing requirements
132
What is the ethical justification for state coercion?
It can be justified if it prevents harm, protects individuals, or promotes overall welfare
133
What ethical concern arises with paternalistic policies?
They may violate individual autonomy and freedom of choice.
134
What is “paternalism” in public policy?
When the government restricts liberty or enforces behavior for people’s own benefit
135
What is “soft paternalism”?
Intervening when individuals might not be fully informed or rational in their decisions.
136
What is “hard paternalism”?
Restricting choices even when individuals are informed and competent to decide for themselves.
137
What is a sin tax?
A tax on goods or behaviors considered harmful, such as alcohol, tobacco, or sugary drinks.
138
What is the purpose of sin taxes?
To discourage harmful behavior and reduce social costs like healthcare spending
139
What is a criticism of sin taxes?
They can disproportionately burden low-income individuals.
140
What is a behavioral nudge?
A subtle policy tool that alters how choices are presented to encourage beneficial behavior without restricting freedom
141
Who popularized the concept of “nudging”?
Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein in Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness (2008).
142
What is “choice architecture”?
The way options are structured to influence decisions.
143
What is an example of a positive nudge?
Automatically enrolling employees in a retirement savings plan unless they opt out.
144
What is an example of a negative nudge?
Graphic warning labels on cigarette packs to discourage smoking
145
How do nudges differ from coercion?
Nudges preserve freedom of choice, while coercion restricts it.
146
What is utilitarianism in policy ethics?
The idea that the best policy maximizes total happiness or welfare for the greatest number.
147
What is deontological ethics?
The view that actions are right or wrong based on moral duties, regardless of outcomes.
148
How do utilitarians justify coercive policies?
If the benefits to society outweigh the restrictions on individual freedom.
149
How do deontologists critique coercive policies?
They argue coercion is wrong because it violates autonomy, even if outcomes are good.
150
What is libertarian paternalism?
The belief that it’s ethical to nudge people toward better choices while maintaining their freedom.
151
What ethical balance must policymakers consider?
Balancing individual freedom with collective welfare and social responsibility.
152
What is public policy?
A course of government action (or inaction) designed to address a public problem
153
What is the primary purpose of public policy?
To promote the general welfare and solve collective problems.
154
What distinguishes public policy from private decision-making?
Public policy involves government authority and affects large groups of people
155
What is a policy instrument?
The tool or mechanism government uses to achieve policy goals (e.g., taxes, subsidies, regulations).
156
What are examples of policy instruments?
Tax incentives, public education, grants, regulations, and information campaigns.
157
What are policy outputs?
The immediate actions or products resulting from government decisions
158
What are policy outcomes?
The long-term effects or results of policy implementation.
159
What is efficiency in public policy?
Achieving goals with the least waste of resources
160
What is effectiveness in public policy?
The degree to which a policy meets its stated objectives.
161
What is equity in public policy?
Fairness in how policy costs and benefits are distributed among citizens.
162
How can efficiency and equity conflict?
A highly efficient policy may be unfair, while an equitable policy may reduce efficiency.
163
What is the role of trade-offs in policymaking?
Policymakers must balance competing goals like cost, fairness, and political feasibility.
164
What is sustainability in policy design?
Ensuring that a policy’s benefits can be maintained over time without depleting resources.
165
What does “Pareto efficiency” mean?
A situation where no one can be made better off without making someone else worse off.
166
What are the main roles of government in public policy?
To regulate, redistribute, provide public goods, and stabilize the economy.
167
What are public goods?
Goods that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, like national defense or clean air.
168
Why does the market fail to provide public goods effectively?
Because private firms cannot easily charge individuals who benefit from them
169
What is government failure?
When government intervention causes inefficiency or unintended negative outcomes.
170
What are examples of government failure?
Excessive bureaucracy, regulatory capture, and wasteful spending.
171
What is regulatory capture?
When agencies act in the interest of the industries they regulate rather than the public.
172
What is the “iron triangle” in policymaking?
The relationship among interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies.
173
What is political legitimacy?
The perception that government actions are appropriate, justified, and accepted by the public.
174
What ensures legitimacy in policymaking?
Transparency, public participation, and adherence to democratic principles
175
What is democratic accountability?
The obligation of government officials to answer to citizens for their decisions and performance.
176
How is accountability maintained in democratic systems?
Through elections, oversight, and checks and balances
177
What is transparency in public policy?
Making government processes and information open to public scrutiny.
178
What is responsiveness in policymaking?
The extent to which government policies reflect citizen needs and preferences
179
Why is trust important in public policy?
High public trust increases compliance and cooperation with government programs
180
What role does public opinion play in policymaking?
It shapes political priorities and influences which issues receive government attention.
181
State Paternalism:
When the government restricts or influences individual behavior for citizens’ own good.
182
Coercive examples
Helmet laws, seatbelt laws, Social Security contributions.
183
Soft paternalism:
Health insurance mandates, “sin” taxes, professional licensing
184
These use law or regulation to guide behavior without fully removing choice
Coercive, Soft paternalism
185
Nudging:
A non-coercive way to influence choices by changing the context in which decisions are made (the “choice architecture”).
186
Examples of nudging
Auto-enrollment in pensions, default organ donation, healthy foods at eye level, social comparison on utility bills.
187
Goal of nudging
Encourage better decisions without limiting freedom.
188
Ethical concern of nudging
Transparency — people should know they’re being nudged.
189
Tragedy of the Commons:
Individually rational actions (e.g., overfishing, pollution) lead to collective harm.
190
Prisoner’s Dilemma:
Rational individuals acting in self-interest can produce worse outcomes than cooperation (e.g., trade wars, climate agreements).
191
War of Attrition:
Parties keep fighting even when costs outweigh benefits (e.g., labor strikes, political shutdowns).
192
Public Goods Game:
Rational individuals under-contribute to public goods because they can free ride, even though cooperation would help everyone.
193
Causes of Collective Irrationality:
Asymmetric information: One side knows more.
Lack of credibility: No trust in commitments.
Lack of accountability: No enforcement mechanisms.
194
Consequences of Collective Irrationality
Free riding, under-provision of goods, one-off cooperation
195
Coercion (Mandates/Bans):
Force compliance to ensure collectively rational behavior.
196
Examples of Coercion
Vaccine mandates, smoking bans, emission ceilings.
197
Non-Coercion (Incentives/Property Rights/Contracts):
Shape behavior through rewards, penalties, and enforcement
198
Examples of Non-Coercion
Carbon taxes, tax credits, fishing permits, trade compacts.
199
Nudges:
Reduce transaction costs and encourage cooperation voluntarily.
200
Examples of nudges
Recycling bins in public areas, default enrollment, public recognition.
201
Property Rights:
Define who controls and benefits from resources.
202
What the difference between Private property,
Public property,
and Collective benefit
Private property: Encourages investment and innovation.
Public property: Promotes fairness and shared access.
Collective benefit: Encourages responsibility and prevents overuse.
203
Enforceable Contracts:
Legally binding agreements that ensure cooperation, reduce uncertainty, and provide remedies for breach.
204
Benefits of enforceable contracts:
Build trust, reduce costs, resolve conflict, and promote efficient exchange.
205
Externalities:
Unintended side effects of actions that affect third parties
206
Examples of negative externalities
Pollution, noise.
207
Example of Positive externalities
Vaccination, education.
208
Market Failures:
When free markets don’t distribute resources efficiently or fairly.
209
Examples of market failure
Homelessness, healthcare inequality.
210
Natural Monopolies:
Industries where a single provider is more efficient (e.g., utilities, infrastructure).
211
Security:
The state’s monopoly on force ensures protection and order.
212
Types of Goods:
Types of Goods:
Public goods: Non-exclusive (education, clean air).
Club goods: Exclusive but shared (university gym)
213
Effectiveness:
Did the policy achieve its intended goals?
214
Dimensions of effectiveness:
Intent vs. outcome, quality vs. quantity, goal attainment.
215
Example of effectiveness
The Affordable Care Act expanded coverage but faced cost challenges
216
Compliance:
Success depends on clear rules, unity, and resources (Nagel 2001).
217
Efficiency:
Were the results worth the costs?
218
Philosophical models of efficiency
Bentham: Maximize pleasure, minimize pain.
J.S. Mill: Greatest happiness for the greatest number.
219
Other Evaluation Criteria for efficiency:
Cost-Benefit, Scalability, Specificity, Temporality, Durability, Coordination
220
Cost-Benefit:
Do benefits exceed costs?
221
Scalability:
Can it expand effectively?
222
Specificity:
Does it address root causes?
223
Temporality:
How long to see results?
224
Durability:
Will results last?
225
Coordination:
Does it align with other policies?
226
Equality
Even distribution of resources, opportunities, or outcomes.
227
Equity:
Fair distribution based on need and ability.
228
types of equity
horizontal equity,
Vertical equity,
Intergenerational equity
229
horizontal equity:
Equal treatment for equal need.
230
Vertical equity
Different treatment for different circumstances.
231
Intergenerational equity:
Fairness across generations.
232
Civil Rights Examples of equity
Brown v. Board (1954) – School desegregation.
Loving v. Virginia (1967) – Interracial marriage.
Bakke (1978) – Limited racial quotas.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Same-sex marriage
davis
flashcards
Decks in class (13)
# Cards
