1
Q
Macromolecules
A
very large organic
molecules with high molecular weights
2
Q
Polymers
A
macromolecules made of a
repetitive series of identical or similar subunits
(monomers)
– Starch is a polymer of about 3,000 glucose
monomers
3
Q
Polymerization
A
joining monomers to form a
polymer
3
Monomers
4
Q
the act of monomers joining by removal of OH and H
A
dehydration synthesis
5
Q
the act of monomers being released from polymer by introduction of h2o
A
hydrolysis
6
Q
Carbohydrates
A
Hydrophilic organic molecule (e.x. sugars and starches)
7
Q
Three important
monosaccharides
A
Glucose, galactose, and
fructose
8
Q
Glucose, galactose, and
fructose are __ of each other
A
isomers
9
Q
Glucose, galactose, and
fructose chemical formula
A
C6H12O6
10
Q
glucose is also known as ____
A
blood sugar
11
Q
Disaccharide
A
sugar
made of two
monosaccharides
12
Q
Three important
disaccharides
A
sucrose, lactose, maltose
13
Q
sucrose is ___, made from ____ and _____
A
table sugar, glucose, fructose
14
Q
lactose is ___, made from ____ and _____
A
sugar in milk, glucose, galactose
15
Q
maltose is ___, made from ____ and _____
A
grain products, glucose, glucose
16
Q
Oligosaccharides
A
short chains of
monosaccharides (typically 3-9)
17
Q
Polysaccharides
A
long chains of monosaccharides
(technically 10 or more, typically at least 50)
18
Q
glycogen is
A
energy storage in cells of liver, muscle, brain,
uterus, vagina
19
Q
starch is
A
energy storage in plants that is digestible by
humans
20
Q
Cellulose is
A
structural molecule in plants that is important
for human dietary fiber (but indigestible to us)
21
Q
Carbohydrates are
A
a quickly mobilized source of energy
– All digested carbohydrates converted to glucose
– Oxidized to make ATP
22
Q
Conjugated carbohydrate
A
covalently bound to lipid or protein moiety
23
Q
Lipids
A
hydrophobic organic molecules with a
high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
24
Q
Five primary lipids in humans
A
– Fatty acids
– Triglycerides
– Phospholipids
– Eicosanoids
– Steroids
25
Fatty acids
Chains of 4-24 carbon atoms with
carboxyl group on one end and
methyl group on the other
26
Triglycerides (Neutral Fats)
– Three fatty acids linked to glycerol
– Each bond formed by dehydration synthesis
– Broken down by hydrolysis
27
Triglycerides when liquid
oil
28
Triglycerides when solid
fat
29
Essential fatty acids obtained from
food
30
Phospholipids
similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group
AKA
two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol
31
Most abundant molecules in the cell membrane
Phospholipids
32
Steroid
a lipid with 17 carbon atoms in four rings
33
Cholesterol
the “parent” steroid from which the
other steroids are synthesized
34
Glycolipids
External surface of cell membrane
35
Glycoproteins
* External surface of cell membrane
* Mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts
36
Proteoglycans
* Gels that hold cells and tissues together
* Gelatinous filler in umbilical cord and eye
* Joint lubrication and cartilage texture
(more carbohydrate than protein)
37
Biomolecule that has more calories per gram than carbohydrates or protein
Lipids
38
__________ fatty acids have a lot of
hydrogen
Saturated fatty acids
39
__________ fatty acids have some double bonds between carbons in chain (potential to add hydrogen)
Unsaturated fatty acids
40
__________ fatty acids have multiple double bonds between carbons in chain
Polyunsaturated
41
Eicosanoids
20-carbon compounds derived from arachidonic acid
42
Hormone-like chemical signals between cells
Eicosanoids
43
.....O\ \
...........C
H - O /
Carboxyl group (chemical: )
43
prostaglandins
Eicosanoids that play role in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, blood vessel diameter
44
H
|
C --- H
|
H
Methyl group (chemical: CH3)
45
Essential nutrients
Nutrients derived from diet, not made naturally by body
46
Primary function of Triglycerides
energy storage
47
_____ fat often from plants
polyunsaturated fats
48
_____ fat often from animals
saturated fats
49
Provides shock resistance and cushioning around bones and muscles of animals
Triglycerides
50
Lipase
Enzyme that breaks down lipids
51
Hydrophobic/nonpolar end of a Phospholipid
fatty acid tail
52
Hydrophilic/polar end of a Phospholipid
phosphate head
53
LDL
bad cholesterol
54
HDL
good cholesterol
55
proportion of cholesterol from diet; from internal synthesis
15:85
56
Protein
A polymer of amino acids (at least 50)
57
Amino acid
central carbon with three attachments (amino group, carboxyl group, and radical group (R group))
58
20 amino acids used to make proteins are identical except for
Radical (R) group
59
Polar in water
dissolves
60
Nonpolar in water
does not dissolve
61
Peptide
Molecule that has at least two amino acids strung together
62
Peptide bond
Amino groups joining via dehydration synthesis
63
Protein conformation
Unique, three-dimensional shape that is crucial for a protein to function
64
Protein conformation is highly dependent on
pH scale and temperature
65
Protein denaturation
Extreme conformational change that destroys function of protein permanently
66
Keratin
Structural protein found in hair, nails, and skin surface - very tough
67
Collagen
Structural protein contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth
68
Ligand
Molecule that reversibly binds to protein
69
Channel proteins
Determine what enters a cell through cell membrane
70
Carrier proteins
transport solutes to other side of membrane
71
Proteins involved in immune response
Antibodies and glycoproteins
72
Motor proteins
molecules with the ability to change
shape repeatedly
73
Cell adhesion
Proteins binding cells together (ex. sperm and egg)
74
Nucleotides are made up of
Nitrogenous base, sugar (monosaccharide), and one or more phosphate groups
75
ATP is made up of
Adenosine (nitrogenous base), Ribose (sugar), and three phosphate groups
76
ATP acts as
The body’s most important energy-transfer
molecule
77
ATP stores energy gained from
exergonic reactions
78
Molecule responsible for energy output
ATP
79
Cyclic AMP structure
Adenosine, ribose, and one phosphate group
80
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
stimulates cell reaction, often activates kinases enzymes, and acts as a messenger
81
Hydrolysis of ATP is catalyzed by
adenosine
triphosphatases (ATPases)
82
Addition of free phosphate group to a molecule
Phosphorylation
83
Phosphorylation carried out by
kinases enzymes
84
Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
nucleotide involved in energy transfer
85
cAMP formed by
removal of second and third phosphate
groups from ATP
86
cAMP formation triggered by
hormone binding to cell surface
87
Nucleic acids
polymer of nucleotides
88
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
contains millions of nucleotides, forms genes
89
three types of RNA
messenger (mRNA), ribosomal (rRNA), transfer (tRNA)
90
RNA
70-10,000 nucleotides long: carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins, and assembles amino acids in right order to produce proteins
91
Cells
responsible for all structural
and functional properties of a living
organism
92
Human cell size
10–15 micrometers (μm)~
93
What limits cell size
physical and metabolic ability to support itself
94
Plasma (cell) membrane
surrounds cell, made of lipids and proteins
95
Cytoplasm
contains cell organelles and cytoskeleton
96
Extracellular fluid
fluid outside of cells
97
plasma membrane
oily membrane that allows select molecules into the cell
98
mechanisms that require ATP
active mechanisms
99
mechanisms that do not require ATP
passive mechanisms
100
mechanisms that use membrane protein
Carrier-mediated mechanisms
101
Simple diffusion
net movement of particles
from place of high concentration to place of
lower concentration
102
Osmosis
net flow of water through a selectively
permeable membrane
103
During osmosis water moves towards
higher concentration of solutes
104
Diarrhea, constipation,
and edema can be caused by
osmotic imbalances
105
Tonicity
ability of a surrounding solution (bath) to affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell
106
Hypotonic solution
causes cell to absorb water and swell / lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than intracellular
fluid (ICF)
107
Hypertonic solution
causes cell to lose water and shrivel
(crenate) / higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF
108
Isotonic solution
causes no change in cell volume
109
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Active transport that uses ATP for energy, carrier moves solute up concentration gradient
110
Four broad categories of tissues
– Epithelial tissue
– Connective tissue
– Nervous tissue
– Muscular tissue
111
Organ
structure with discrete boundaries that is
composed of two or more tissue types
112
Epithelia
sheets of closely adhering cells,
one or more cells thick with no blood vessels
113
Epithelia functions
– Protect deeper tissues from injury and
infection
– Produce and release chemical
secretions
– Excrete wastes
– Absorb chemicals including nutrients
– Selectively filter substances
– Sense stimuli
114
Basement membrane
layer between an epithelium
and underlying connective tissue
115
Basal surface
surface of epithelial cell facing the
basement membrane
116
Apical surface
surface of epithelial cell that faces
away from the basement membrane
117
Simple epithelia
– Contain one layer of cells
– Named by shape of cells
– All cells touch basement
membrane
118
Stratified, transitional,
pseudostratified epithelia
– Contain more than one layer
– Named by shape of apical cells
– Some cells rest on top of others, do
not touch basement membrane
119
Connective tissue
a diverse, abundant type of
tissue in which cells occupy less space than matrix that support, connect and protect organs
120
Fibers of fibrous connective tissue
Collagenous, Reticular, and Elastic
121
Collagenous fibers
* Collagen is most abundant of the body’s proteins—25%
* Tough, flexible, and stretch-resisant
* Tendons, ligaments, and deep layer of the skin are mostly collagen
* Less visible in matrix of cartilage and bone
122
Reticular fibers
* Thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
* Form framework of spleen and lymph nodes
123
Elastic fibers
* Thinner than collagenous fibers
* Branch and rejoin each other
* Made of protein called elastin
* Allows stretch and recoil
124
Adipose tissue
fat / tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell
type
125
Space between adipose tissue occupied by
fibrous connective tissue
(areolar and reticular tissue) and blood capillaries
126
body’s primary energy reservoir
fat
127
Two types of fat
white and brown
128
Fat in adults
white fat
129
Fat in infants and children
brown fat
130
Cartilage
Stiff connective tissue with flexible matrix
131
Chondroblasts
cartilage cells that produce the matrix
that will trap them
132
Chondrocytes
cartilage cells that are trapped in
lacunae (cavities)
133
Perichondrium
sheath of dense irregular connective
tissue that surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage (not articular cartilage)
134
Cartlidge matrix rich in
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs such
as chondroitin) and contains collagen fibers
135
Skin layers
Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
136
Hyaline Cartilage
Amorphous, firm matrix; imperceptible network of collagen fibers; chondroblasts produce matrix when mature
137
Fibrocartilage
similar but less firm than hyaline Cartlidge; thick collagen fibers
138
Elastic Cartilage
similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix
139
Skin Functions
Trauma resistance, protection from sun, vitamin D synthesis
140
Epidermis
keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium; no blood vessels and has dead skin top layer
141
Dermis
connective tissue layer beneath epidermis
142
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous tissue and fat
Bio 308/309
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Decks in class (7)
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