1
Q
Name the 4 research methods
A
- Experimental method
- Observational techniques
- Self-report techniques
- Correlations
2
Q
What is random allocation?
A
When participants have same chance of being placed in any condition in experiment
3
Q
Describe how you could randomly allocate participants to 2 condtions
A
- Name each participant on separate piece of paper
- Put all names in a hat
- Pick out names individually
- 1st half of names are assigned to condition A
- 2nd half of names assigned to condition B
4
Q
Name 4 experimental methods
A
- Laboratory Experiments
- Field Experiments
- Natural Experiments
- Quasi Experiments
5
Q
What is meant by a laboratory experiment?
A
- Experiment that takes place in controlled environment
- Where researcher manipulates IV and records effect of DV
- Involves controlled EVs and randomly allocating participants to conditions
6
Q
Laboratory Experiments
Name 2 pros
A
- Replication
- Due to high level of control
- Find if results are valid
- High control over EV
- Researcher can ensure that effect on DV is result of manipulation of IV
- Show true cause and effect = high internal validity
- Researcher can ensure that effect on DV is result of manipulation of IV
7
Q
Laboratory Experiments
Name 2 cons
A
- Demand characteristics
- Results invalid
- Lack generalisability
- Lab experiment = artificial
- Participants may behave in strand ways = behaviour cannot be generalised = low external validity
8
Q
What is meant by a field experiment?
A
Experiment that takes place in natural setting where researcher manipulates IV and records effect of DV
9
Q
Field Experiment
Name a pro
A
- Higher mundane realism = environment is more natural
- Produce behaviour that’s more valid = high external validity
- Especially when participants don’t know they’re being studied
10
Q
Field Experiment
Name 3 cons
A
- Precise replication is difficult due to lack of control
- Harder to control extraneous variables
- Harder to establish cause and effect between IV and DV
- Ethical issues
- Participants cannot consent to being studied
11
Q
What is meant by a natural experiment?
A
Experiment where IV occurs naturally and not manipulated by researcher (is external)
- Setting could still artificial
- DV would happen even if researcher were not studying IV (e.g. IV e.g. adoption/natural disaster)
12
Q
Natural Experiment
Name 2 pros
A
- Provides opportunities for research that may not be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
- High external validity
- Involve study of real life issues
13
Q
Natural Experiment
Name 2 cons
A
- Naturally occurring event rarely happens
- Limits the scope for generalising results to other similar situations
- Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
- Can’t be sure if IV affected DV
14
Q
What is meant by a quasi experiment?
A
- IV had not been determined by anyone (it’s naturally occurring within the participant)
- IV is internal & can’t be manipulated by researcher
- e.g. IV = twin, old, young, where they have IQ over 100
15
Q
Quasi Experiment
Name a pro
A
- Under controlled conditions
- Have same strengths had lab e.g. clear cause and effect, high internal validity, ability to replicate
16
Q
Quasi Experiment
Name 2 cons
A
- Lack ecological validity
- Researcher cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions
- May be confounding variables = affects validity
17
Q
Why conduct observations?
A
Experimental method doesn’t always provide most suitable way to study particular behaviour
18
Q
Name 8 observational techniques
A
- Naturalistic Observations
- Controlled Observations
- Covert Observations
- Overt Observations
- Participant Observation
- Non-participant Observation
- Unstructured Observations
- Structured Observations
19
Q
Describe Naturalistic Observations
A
Watching and recording behaviour in setting which it would normally occur in
e.g. watching infant play in its natural environment (nursery school)
20
Q
Naturalistic Observations
Name a pro
A
- High external validity
- Findings generalisable
21
Q
Naturalistic Observations
Name 3 cons
A
- Lack control = replication is difficult
- Hard to have confidence in results
- Difficult to control extraneous variables
- Hard to judge any pattern in behaviour in valid way
22
Q
Describe Controlled Observations
A
Watching and recording behaviour within structured environment (where some variables managed)
e.g. Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation
23
Q
Controlled Observations
Name a pro
A
- Extraneous variables controlled
- Easier to cause and effect & replicate observation
24
Q
Controlled Observations
Name a con
A
More artificial = lack external validity ∴ can’t generalise to real life
25
Describe Covert Observations
* Participants' behaviour is watched and recored without their knowledge
* Behaviour has to be public & happening anyway for observation to be ethical
26
Covert Observations
Name a pro
* Removes problem of participant reactivity & ensures behaviour observed will be natural
* Increases validity of data
27
Covert Observations
Name a con
Ethics questionable = public may not want to be observed
28
Describe Overt Observations
* Participants' behaviour is watched and recored with their knowledge
* Observers try to unobtrusive as possible = use one way mirrors
29
Overt Observations
Name a pro
More ethical = no issues with privacy and informed consent
30
Overt Observations
Name a con
* Participant reactivity e.g. social desirability
* Behaviour may not be valid
31
Describe Participant Observation
Researcher becomes member of group whose behaviour they're watching and recording
32
Participant Observation
Name 2 pros
* Researcher can experience situation as participants do
* Gives insight to lives of people being studied = increases validity of findings
33
Participant Observation
Name a con
Researcher may identify too strongly with those they're studying and lose objectivity
34
Describe Non-participant Observation
* Researcher remains outside group whose behaviour they're watching
* Records behaviour in more objective manner
35
Non-participant Observation
Name a pro
Maintain objective psychological distance = less danger of 'going native'
36
Non-participant Observation
Name a con
* Lose valuable insight as they're not participating
* May not understand behaviour
37
Describe Unstructured Observations
* Researcher records all relevant behaviours but has no system
* Observer has to record every instance of behaviour in as much detail
38
Unstructured Observations
Name a pro
* Useful for researchers who are observing behaviours/situations that haven't been conducted before
* As kind of pilot study to see what behaviours might be recored using structured system
39
Unstructured Observations
Name 2 cons
* May be too much to record
* Behaviours recorded = most visible but may not be most important/relevant behaviours
40
Describe Structured Observations
Use of various 'systems' to organise observations
41
Name the 2 mains ways to structure observation
By using:
* Behavioural Categories
* Sampling Procedures
42
Describe Behavioural Categories
* Behaviour needs to be operationalised ∴ break it down into set of categories
* e.g. when observing infant behaviour = smiling, crying and sleeping
* Should be objective, cover all possible behaviours and mutually exclusive
43
Name 4 reasons why behavioural categories are important
1. Allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings
2. Provides clear focus
3. Greater reliability
4. Easier to quantify data
44
Name 2 Sampling Procedures
* Event sampling
* Time sampling
45
What is event sampling?
Counting no. of times a certain behaviour occurs in certain time
46
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviours in given frame
e.g. every 30 seconds
47
Describe observer bias
* Difficult for observers to be objective
* What researchers observe can be distorted by their expectations of what's likely or what they hope to see
48
How can we make observations more reliable?
By using at least 2 observers to record same data
49
What is meant by inter-observer reliability?
Extent to which 2 or more observes agree
50
When is the inter-observer reliability considered high for data?
More than 80% agreement on observations
51
What are questionnaires?
Set of written questions designed to collection information
52
Name 3 qualities that good questionnaires have
* Filler questions
* Irrelevant questions to distract respondent from main purpose of questionnaire
* Sequence for questions
* Start with easy questions
* Pilot study
* Test questionnaire on small group of people
53
Name 3 pros of questionnaires
* Use them for lots of people cheaply and quickly
* Respondents may feel comfortable to reveal personal/confidential information
* Reduces experimenter bias
54
Name 2 cons of questionnaires
* Biased
* Take long time to design
55
Name 2 types of interviews
* Structured Interview
* Unstructured Interview
56
Describe Structured Interviews
Pre-determined questions
57
Describe Unstructured Interviews
* New questions developed during course of interview
* May begin with general aims
58
Name 3 designs of interviews
* Recording interview
* Effect of interviewer
* Non-verbal communication
59
Name 3 questioning tips for interviews
* Be aware of questions asked & avoid repeating them
* Avoid probing too much and asking why too often
* Ask more focused questions
60
Interviews
Name 3 pros
* Easily be repeated ∵ questions are standardised
* Different people can be compared due to standardised questions
* More detailed information
61
Interviews
Name 3 cons
* Interviewer bias
* More expensive = need skilled interviewer
* Comparability difficult if interviewer behaves differently or different interviewer
62
What are correlations?
Relationship between 2 variables to see if trend/pattern exists
63
Describe the difference between correlations and experiments
* Experiment = controls or manipulates IV to see effect on DV
* Possible to infer cause and effect relationship between IV and DV
* Correlation study, researcher doesn't manipulate IV ∴ can't assume cause and effect relationship
* e.g. if we found strong positive correlation between caffeine and anxiety ≠ caffeine causes anxiety
64
Write a correlational null hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There is no relationship between age and beauty, any relationship will be due to chance factors
65
Write a correlational non-directional hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There will be a relationship between age and beauty
66
Write a correlational directional hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There will be as positive relationship between age and beauty
67
Describe Curvilinear Relationships
Relationship is not linear = predictable relationship through Yerkes-Dodson law
68
Correlations
Name 3 pros
* Used to investigate trends in data
* Correlation = significant = further investigation justified
* Correlation = insignificant = rule out causal relationship
* Can be easier repeated = findings can be confirmed
* Quick and economical
* No need for controlled environment or manipulation of variables
* Data collected by others = correlations less time consuming
69
Correlations
Name 2 cons
* Lack internal/external valid
* e.g. methods used to measure academic achievement may lack validity
* Or sample used may lack generalisability
* As researcher measures variables without manipulating = no clear cause and effect
70
What is meant by self-report?
When participants gives information to the reseacher
