Adv Patho Exam 1 Flashcards

Question

Define **autophagy**.

Answer 1

Self-degradative recycling process that helps survival during starvation or stress ## Footnote It removes damaged organelles/proteins.

Answer 2

* Maintains metabolism during nutrient deprivation * Removes dysfunctional organelles to reduce ROS accumulation * Relevant to aging, cancer prevention, neurodegeneration, cardiac and inflammatory disorders ## Footnote Autophagy plays a critical role in cellular health.

Answer 3

Autophagy declines with age, allowing damaged material to accumulate ## Footnote This contributes to protein aggregates and mitochondrial/DNA damage.

Answer 4

* Intracellular fluid (ICF) * Extracellular fluid (ECF) ## Footnote ICF is key for metabolism, while ECF serves as a transport medium.

Answer 5

* Interstitial fluid * Intravascular fluid * Transcellular fluids ## Footnote Each subdivision has specific roles in the body.

Answer 6

* Filtration: fluid movement out of capillary into interstitium * Reabsorption: fluid movement from interstitium back into capillary ## Footnote Balance depends on hydrostatic and oncotic pressures.

Answer 7

* Capillary hydrostatic pressure pushes water out * Capillary oncotic pressure pulls water in * Interstitial hydrostatic pressure pushes water into capillary * Interstitial oncotic pressure pulls water out ## Footnote These forces determine fluid movement across capillary membranes.

Answer 8

* Increased hydrostatic pressure * Decreased oncotic pressure * Increased permeability * Lymphatic obstruction ## Footnote Edema results from excessive interstitial fluid.

Answer 9

* Localized vs generalized * Dependent edema * Pitting edema patterns ## Footnote Edema can affect wound healing and perfusion.

Answer 10

Water follows sodium; sodium regulates ECF volume and osmotic balance ## Footnote Water balance is controlled by ADH; aldosterone and natriuretic peptides regulate sodium.

Answer 11

* Low BP or sodium -> renin release -> angiotensinogen -> angiotensin I -> ACE -> angiotensin II ## Footnote Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and stimulates aldosterone and ADH.

Answer 12

* ANP (atria) * BNP (ventricles) * Urodilatin (kidney) ## Footnote Released with increased volume/pressure, they cause vasodilation and increase sodium/water excretion.

Answer 13

Major ECF anion; follows sodium and varies inversely with bicarbonate ## Footnote Helps maintain acid-base balance.

Answer 14

* Increased plasma osmolality (primary) * Decreased blood volume/pressure ## Footnote ADH increases water reabsorption in distal tubules/collecting ducts.

Answer 15

* Surface barriers * Inflammation * Adaptive immunity ## Footnote These lines protect against pathogens and injury.

Answer 16

* Tight junction epithelium (skin, GI, GU, respiratory) * Local inhibitory conditions (acidic environments, cooler skin, intact keratin) ## Footnote These barriers prevent pathogen entry.

Answer 17

* Vasodilation * Pain * Increased vascular permeability * Smooth muscle contraction ## Footnote Bradykinin is part of the kinin system activated during inflammation.

Answer 18

* Redness * Heat * Swelling * Pain * Loss of function ## Footnote These signs indicate the body's response to injury or infection.

Answer 19

* Hemostasis * Inflammation * Proliferation/new tissue * Remodeling/maturation ## Footnote Each phase plays a crucial role in tissue repair.

Answer 20

Produce antibodies (humoral immunity) ## Footnote B cells are activated after innate defenses are breached.

Answer 21

* CD4: helper T cells * CD8: cytotoxic T cells ## Footnote These cells have distinct roles in the immune response.

Answer 22

* Atrophy * Hypertrophy * Hyperplasia * Metaplasia ## Footnote Each type of adaptation serves to maintain function and prevent injury.

Answer 23

Decrease in cell size, leads to smaller organ ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal development) or pathologic (reduced workload, blood flow, etc.)

Answer 24

Increase in cell size, mainly in non-dividing cells ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal demand) or pathologic (chronic overload).

Answer 25

Increase in number of cells caused by increased cell division ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal response) or pathologic (abnormal proliferation).

Answer 26

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another ## Footnote Protective but often causes loss of normal function.

Answer 27

Abnormal growth pattern, considered precancerous ## Footnote Seen mostly in cervix, endometrium, and respiratory/GI linings.

Answer 28

Lack of sufficient O2 inside cells ## Footnote Most common cause of cellular injury.

Answer 29

Ischemia (reduced blood flow and O2 supply) ## Footnote Causes include loss of Hgb, reduced O2 in air, and poisoning of oxidative enzymes.

Answer 30

Stop producing ATP ## Footnote The cell switches to anaerobic metabolism to make ATP from glycogen.

Answer 31

Further injury after blood flow and O2 restored after ischemia ## Footnote Involves oxidative stress, nitrogen-based radicals, calcium overload, and inflammation.

Answer 32

Unpaired electron, unstable and highly reactive ## Footnote Sources include normal metabolism, radiation, and enzymatic metabolism of toxins.

Answer 33

Accidental/unregulated cell death after severe injury ## Footnote Causes include ischemia, toxins, and trauma.

Answer 34

Programmed or regulated cell death ## Footnote Maintains balance and can be pathologic or dysregulated.

Answer 35

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System ## Footnote Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

Answer 36

Concentrated plasma or decreased blood volume/pressure ## Footnote ADH increases water reabsorption in distal tubules and collecting ducts.

Answer 37

Excess fluid in interstitial space ## Footnote Can result from increased capillary hydrostatic pressure or decreased oncotic pressure.

Answer 38

Maintains oncotic pressure in plasma ## Footnote Essential for fluid balance between blood and interstitial spaces.

Answer 39

Self-digestion and recycling within the cell ## Footnote Helps remove damaged organelles and misfolded proteins.

Answer 40

5-6g/day ## Footnote Sodium regulates ECF volume and osmotic balance.

Answer 41

* Interstitial * Intravascular * Transcellular ## Footnote Each component serves different functions in the body.

Answer 42

Cause vasodilation and enhance Na and H2O excretion ## Footnote Act as natural antagonists to RAAS.

Answer 43

* Increases water reabsorption in distal tubules and collecting ducts * Secreted by posterior pituitary * Triggered by concentrated plasma or decreased blood volume/pressure ## Footnote ADH plays a crucial role in regulating water balance in the body.

Answer 44

* Concentrated plasma * Decreased blood volume * Decreased blood pressure ## Footnote These triggers help maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.

Answer 45

* V1: in blood vessels * V2: in distal collecting ducts ## Footnote V1 receptors are activated by high doses of vasopressin, while V2 receptors are involved in water reabsorption.

Answer 46

Produces hypertonicity ## Footnote Hypernatremia is characterized by an elevated sodium concentration in the blood.

Answer 47

* Hypovolemic: total body fluid loss with greater Na loss * Euvolemic: pure Na deficit or H2O retention * Hypervolemic: increased Na and H2O with greater H2O retention ## Footnote Each type of hyponatremia has different underlying causes and implications.

Answer 48

Normal ratio is HCO3- : H2CO3 is 20:1 ## Footnote This system helps maintain pH balance in the body.

Answer 49

* Buffers: instant response * Respiratory control: minutes * Renal control: hours to days ## Footnote These mechanisms work together to maintain acid-base balance.

Answer 50

* Increased nonvolatile acids * Loss of HCO3- * Reduced renal acid excretion * Rapid causes: lactic acidosis, hypoxia, shock ## Footnote Metabolic acidosis can lead to significant physiological disturbances.

Answer 51

* H+ loss * HCO3- gain * Causes: vomiting, diuretics, hyperaldosteronism, excessive alkali intake ## Footnote Metabolic alkalosis can result from various conditions affecting acid-base balance.

Answer 52

H+ enters cells and K+ exits ## Footnote This shift can lead to hyperkalemia in acidosis.

Answer 53

H+ exits cells and K+ enters ## Footnote This shift can lead to hypokalemia in alkalosis.

Answer 54

* Hormones guide development * Control growth and development * Coordinate reproductive systems * Help adapt to emergencies/stress ## Footnote The endocrine system plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis.

Answer 55

* Autocrine: acts on itself * Paracrine: acts on nearby cells * Endocrine: travels through blood to distant cells ## Footnote These communication methods define how hormones exert their effects.

Answer 56

* Negative feedback: high hormone levels stop further release * Positive feedback: hormone release increases further secretion ## Footnote Feedback loops are crucial for maintaining hormonal balance.

Answer 57

* Water-soluble: circulate freely, short half-lives * Lipid-soluble: bind to carrier proteins, longer half-lives ## Footnote This distinction affects how hormones act and their duration of action.

Answer 58

* Cl <97mEq/L * Often occurs with low Na or elevated bicarbonate * Causes: sodium deficit, diuretics, vomiting ## Footnote Hypochloremia can indicate underlying metabolic disturbances.

Answer 59

* Atrophy * Hypertrophy * Hyperplasia * Metaplasia ## Footnote Each type of adaptation serves to maintain function and prevent injury.

Answer 60

Decrease in cell size, leads to smaller organ ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal development) or pathologic (reduced workload, blood flow, etc.)

Answer 61

Increase in cell size, mainly in non-dividing cells ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal demand) or pathologic (chronic overload).

Answer 62

Increase in number of cells caused by increased cell division ## Footnote Can be physiologic (normal response) or pathologic (abnormal proliferation).

Answer 63

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another ## Footnote Protective but often causes loss of normal function.

Answer 64

Abnormal growth pattern, considered precancerous ## Footnote Seen mostly in cervix, endometrium, and respiratory/GI linings.

Answer 65

Lack of sufficient O2 inside cells ## Footnote Most common cause of cellular injury.

Answer 66

Ischemia (reduced blood flow and O2 supply) ## Footnote Causes include loss of Hgb, reduced O2 in air, and poisoning of oxidative enzymes.

Answer 67

Stop producing ATP ## Footnote The cell switches to anaerobic metabolism to make ATP from glycogen.

Answer 68

Further injury after blood flow and O2 restored after ischemia ## Footnote Involves oxidative stress, nitrogen-based radicals, calcium overload, and inflammation.

Answer 69

Unpaired electron, unstable and highly reactive ## Footnote Sources include normal metabolism, radiation, and enzymatic metabolism of toxins.

Answer 70

Accidental/unregulated cell death after severe injury ## Footnote Causes include ischemia, toxins, and trauma.

Answer 71

Programmed or regulated cell death ## Footnote Maintains balance and can be pathologic or dysregulated.

Answer 72

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System ## Footnote Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

Answer 73

Concentrated plasma or decreased blood volume/pressure ## Footnote ADH increases water reabsorption in distal tubules and collecting ducts.

Answer 74

Excess fluid in interstitial space ## Footnote Can result from increased capillary hydrostatic pressure or decreased oncotic pressure.

Answer 75

Maintains oncotic pressure in plasma ## Footnote Essential for fluid balance between blood and interstitial spaces.

Answer 76

Self-digestion and recycling within the cell ## Footnote Helps remove damaged organelles and misfolded proteins.

Answer 77

5-6g/day ## Footnote Sodium regulates ECF volume and osmotic balance.

Answer 78

* Interstitial * Intravascular * Transcellular ## Footnote Each component serves different functions in the body.

Answer 79

Cause vasodilation and enhance Na and H2O excretion ## Footnote Act as natural antagonists to RAAS.

Answer 80

* Increases water reabsorption in distal tubules and collecting ducts * Secreted by posterior pituitary * Triggered by concentrated plasma or decreased blood volume/pressure ## Footnote ADH plays a crucial role in regulating water balance in the body.

Answer 81

* Concentrated plasma * Decreased blood volume * Decreased blood pressure ## Footnote These triggers help maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.

Answer 82

* V1: in blood vessels * V2: in distal collecting ducts ## Footnote V1 receptors are activated by high doses of vasopressin, while V2 receptors are involved in water reabsorption.

Answer 83

Produces hypertonicity ## Footnote Hypernatremia is characterized by an elevated sodium concentration in the blood.

Answer 84

* Hypovolemic: total body fluid loss with greater Na loss * Euvolemic: pure Na deficit or H2O retention * Hypervolemic: increased Na and H2O with greater H2O retention ## Footnote Each type of hyponatremia has different underlying causes and implications.

Answer 85

Normal ratio is HCO3- : H2CO3 is 20:1 ## Footnote This system helps maintain pH balance in the body.

Answer 86

* Buffers: instant response * Respiratory control: minutes * Renal control: hours to days ## Footnote These mechanisms work together to maintain acid-base balance.

Answer 87

* Increased nonvolatile acids * Loss of HCO3- * Reduced renal acid excretion * Rapid causes: lactic acidosis, hypoxia, shock ## Footnote Metabolic acidosis can lead to significant physiological disturbances.

Answer 88

* H+ loss * HCO3- gain * Causes: vomiting, diuretics, hyperaldosteronism, excessive alkali intake ## Footnote Metabolic alkalosis can result from various conditions affecting acid-base balance.

Answer 89

H+ enters cells and K+ exits ## Footnote This shift can lead to hyperkalemia in acidosis.

Answer 90

H+ exits cells and K+ enters ## Footnote This shift can lead to hypokalemia in alkalosis.

Answer 91

* Hormones guide development * Control growth and development * Coordinate reproductive systems * Help adapt to emergencies/stress ## Footnote The endocrine system plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis.

Answer 92

* Autocrine: acts on itself * Paracrine: acts on nearby cells * Endocrine: travels through blood to distant cells ## Footnote These communication methods define how hormones exert their effects.

Answer 93

* Negative feedback: high hormone levels stop further release * Positive feedback: hormone release increases further secretion ## Footnote Feedback loops are crucial for maintaining hormonal balance.

Answer 94

* Water-soluble: circulate freely, short half-lives * Lipid-soluble: bind to carrier proteins, longer half-lives ## Footnote This distinction affects how hormones act and their duration of action.

Answer 95

* Cl <97mEq/L * Often occurs with low Na or elevated bicarbonate * Causes: sodium deficit, diuretics, vomiting ## Footnote Hypochloremia can indicate underlying metabolic disturbances.

Answer 96

cells ## Footnote Cells are divided into Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic types.

Answer 97

* Animals * Plants * Fungi * Protozoa * Most algae ## Footnote Eukaryotic cells are larger and more organized than prokaryotic cells.

Answer 98

true nucleus ## Footnote 'Eu' means true, and 'karyon' means nucleus.

Answer 99

* Smaller and simpler structure * No nucleus * No organelles * Genetic material is free in the cytoplasm * DNA is a single circular chromosome * No histone proteins ## Footnote Prokaryotic cells include bacteria.

Answer 100

multiple linear; one circular ## Footnote Histones are present in eukaryotes but absent in prokaryotes.

Answer 101

* Movement * Conductivity * Metabolic Absorption * Secretion * Excretion * Respiration * Reproduction * Communication ## Footnote These functions are essential for maintaining cellular health and homeostasis.

Answer 102

movement ## Footnote Skeletal muscles move bones and limbs, while smooth muscles move contents in hollow organs.

Answer 103

stimulation ## Footnote Nerve cells and heart muscle cells show strong conductivity.

Answer 104

remove waste products ## Footnote Lysosomes digest large molecules into waste that exits the cell.

Answer 105

* Transmembrane proteins * Cytosolic proteins * Lipid-anchored proteins * Peripheral proteins ## Footnote Each type has distinct roles in cellular function.

Answer 106

carbohydrate coating ## Footnote Formed by glycolipids and glycoproteins on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.

Answer 107

* Fibrous Structural Proteins * Adhesive Glycoproteins * Proteoglycans and Hyaluronic Acid ## Footnote The ECM provides structural support and facilitates communication between cells.

Answer 108

tissue structure ## Footnote CAMs allow cells to bind to each other and to the extracellular matrix.

Answer 109

* Extracellular Matrix (ECM) * Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) * Specialized Cell Junctions ## Footnote These mechanisms help maintain tissue integrity and communication.

Answer 110

preventing leakage ## Footnote Tight junctions act as barriers to diffusion between cells.

Answer 111

allow direct passage of ions and small signaling molecules ## Footnote They enable electrical and chemical communication between cells.

Answer 112

* Digestion * Glycolysis and Oxidation * Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) ## Footnote These phases are essential for breaking down food and producing energy.

Answer 113

oxygen ## Footnote It produces lactic acid and is less efficient than aerobic respiration.

Answer 114

maintaining cell volume and excitability ## Footnote It uses ATP to transport sodium and potassium across the cell membrane.

Answer 115

* Contact-Dependent * Paracrine * Autocrine * Hormonal (Endocrine) * Neurohormonal * Neurotransmitter Signaling ## Footnote Each type has different distances and mechanisms of action.

Answer 116

survive ## Footnote Adapted cells are in a reversible state, maintaining function and preventing injury.

Answer 117

* Self-renewal * Differentiation into specialized cells ## Footnote Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can give rise to various cell types.

Answer 118

maintain specialization across generations ## Footnote Cells remember their function due to specific gene expression patterns set during embryonic development.

Answer 119

Cells can adapt to stress or environmental changes to survive ## Footnote Adapted cells are neither completely normal nor injured—they are in a reversible, in-between state.

Answer 120

To maintain function and prevent injury ## Footnote When stress continues or becomes too strong, cell injury or death occurs.

Answer 121

* Atrophy * Hypertrophy * Hyperplasia * Metaplasia * Dysplasia ## Footnote These adaptations occur in response to various stressors.

Answer 122

Decrease in cell size ## Footnote This leads to a smaller organ.

Answer 123

* Physiologic atrophy * Pathologic atrophy ## Footnote Physiologic atrophy occurs during normal development, while pathologic atrophy is caused by reduced workload, use, blood flow, hormones, or nerve supply.

Answer 124

Increase in cell size ## Footnote This results in an enlarged organ.

Answer 125

* Physiologic hypertrophy * Pathologic hypertrophy * Compensatory hypertrophy ## Footnote Physiologic hypertrophy is caused by normal demand or hormones, while pathologic hypertrophy is due to chronic overload.

Answer 126

Increase in the number of cells ## Footnote This is caused by increased cell division.

Answer 127

* Physiologic hyperplasia * Pathologic hyperplasia ## Footnote Physiologic hyperplasia is a normal, beneficial response, while pathologic hyperplasia is abnormal and excessive.

Answer 128

Abnormal changes in cell size, shape, and organization ## Footnote It is often called atypical hyperplasia and represents a potentially precancerous change.

Answer 129

Reversible replacement of one mature cell type with another ## Footnote This change can better tolerate stress but often causes loss of normal function.

Answer 130

Further injury that occurs when blood flow and oxygen are restored after ischemia ## Footnote This can lead to oxidative stress and additional cellular damage.

Answer 131

* Oxidative stress * Nitrogen-based radicals * Calcium overload * Inflammation * Complement activation ## Footnote Antioxidants can help reduce damage by neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Answer 132

* Highly toxic substances (e.g., arsenic, cyanide) * Environmental and industrial toxins * Alcohol * Social and street drugs ## Footnote Chronic exposure to these agents can lead to significant cellular damage.

Answer 133

Cell death that occurs after severe and irreversible injury ## Footnote Major causes include ischemia, exposure to toxins, and physical injury.

Answer 134

* Plasma and lysosomal membranes rupture * Rapid ATP depletion * Leakage of cellular contents ## Footnote These features lead to inflammation and further tissue damage.

Answer 135

Refers to large areas of tissue death ## Footnote It can be dry, wet, or gas gangrene, each with distinct characteristics.

Answer 136

Programmed and energy-dependent form of cell death ## Footnote It maintains balance in cell populations and occurs in both normal and pathological conditions.

Answer 137

Self-degradative and recycling process ## Footnote It helps the cell survive during starvation or stress.

Answer 138

* Maintains metabolism during nutrient deprivation * Removes dysfunctional organelles * Plays a role in aging, cancer prevention, neurodegenerative diseases ## Footnote Autophagy is crucial for cellular health and longevity.

Answer 139

* Hydrostatic pressure * Osmotic/oncotic pressure ## Footnote These forces regulate fluid movement in and out of capillaries.

Answer 140

Excessive accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces ## Footnote It results from fluid movement from capillaries or lymphatic vessels into surrounding tissues.

Answer 141

* Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure * Decreased capillary oncotic pressure * Increased capillary membrane permeability * Lymphatic channel obstruction ## Footnote Each mechanism contributes to fluid imbalance in tissues.

Answer 142

A hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance ## Footnote It is triggered by low blood pressure or sodium levels.

Answer 143

Low sodium levels in the blood ## Footnote Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause and may include water restriction or hypertonic saline.

Answer 144

Serum chloride less than 97 mEq/L ## Footnote Often occurs with hyponatremia or elevated bicarbonate in metabolic alkalosis.

Answer 145

A condition characterized by increased nonvolatile acids or loss of bicarbonate ## Footnote Rapid causes include lactic acidosis, while slower causes include renal failure.

Answer 146

Less than 97 mEq/L ## Footnote Often occurs with hyponatremia or elevated bicarbonate in metabolic alkalosis.

Answer 147

* Sodium deficit from restricted intake * Diuretics * Vomiting ## Footnote These factors can contribute to low serum chloride levels.

Answer 148

Treat the underlying cause ## Footnote Addressing the root issue is essential for correction.

Answer 149

* Increased nonvolatile acids * Loss of HCO₃⁻ * Reduced renal acid excretion ## Footnote These mechanisms lead to a decrease in blood pH.

Answer 150

* Lactic acidosis (hypoxia, shock) ## Footnote Rapid onset conditions can lead to significant acid accumulation.

Answer 151

* Renal failure * DKA/starvation ketoacidosis * Toxin/acid ingestion * Chronic diarrhea (HCO₃⁻ loss) ## Footnote These conditions develop over time and contribute to acid-base imbalance.

Answer 152

* Buffers consume H⁺ * K⁺ shifts out of cells * Ionized calcium increases ## Footnote These physiological responses help to mitigate the effects of acidosis.

Answer 153

Kussmaul respirations (deep, rapid) to reduce PaCO₂ ## Footnote This type of breathing is a response to acidosis.

Answer 154

Anion gap ≈ (Na⁺ + K⁺) − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ## Footnote Normal anion gap is about 10–12 mEq/L.

Answer 155

Accumulation of unmeasured anions (lactate, ketoacids, toxins, renal failure) ## Footnote This suggests a more severe metabolic acidosis.

Answer 156

* Headache * Lethargy * Confusion * Coma * GI upset * Dysrhythmias * Hypotension ## Footnote These symptoms reflect the systemic effects of acidosis.

Answer 157

pH < 7.35, HCO₃⁻ < 22 mEq/L ## Footnote These values confirm the diagnosis of metabolic acidosis.

Answer 158

* Treat cause * Correct volume and electrolytes * Buffer therapy for severe acidemia (pH ≤ 7.1) ## Footnote Addressing the underlying cause is crucial for effective management.

Answer 159

* H⁺ loss * HCO₃⁻ gain ## Footnote These mechanisms lead to an increase in blood pH.

Answer 160

* Vomiting or NG suction (HCl loss) * Diuretics * Hyperaldosteronism * Excessive alkali (sodium bicarb) * Massive transfusion (citrate) ## Footnote These factors contribute to the development of metabolic alkalosis.

Answer 161

Low Cl⁻ sustains HCO₃⁻ retention ## Footnote This condition is characterized by low chloride levels.

Answer 162

Hypoventilation retains CO₂ (limited by oxygen need) ## Footnote This response helps to balance the increased pH.

Answer 163

* Weakness * Cramps * Hyperreflexia * Hypocalcemia symptoms (paresthesias, tetany, seizures) * Shallow breathing * Dysrhythmias ## Footnote These symptoms reflect the systemic effects of alkalosis.

Answer 164

pH > 7.45, HCO₃⁻ > 26 mEq/L; PaCO₂ often > 40 mmHg if compensating ## Footnote These values confirm the diagnosis of metabolic alkalosis.

Answer 165

* Treat cause * Volume/Cl⁻ repletion with NaCl for hypochloremic states * K⁺ repletion * Address mineralocorticoid excess ## Footnote Correcting the underlying issue is essential for management.

Answer 166

* Physical barriers * Mechanical clearance mechanisms * Biochemical secretions * Human microbiome living on body surfaces ## Footnote These components work together to prevent pathogen entry.

Answer 167

* Tightly joined epithelial cells of skin, GI, GU, and respiratory tracts * Skin integrity limits pathogen entry * Local conditions inhibit growth (cooler skin temperature, acidic environments) ## Footnote These barriers are crucial for preventing infections.

Answer 168

* Mucociliary escalator * Shear and flow (urination) * Rapid clearance (vomiting and defecation) * Cell turnover (shedding of skin and mucosal cells) ## Footnote These mechanisms help to expel pathogens from the body.

Answer 169

* Secretions that trap or kill microbes (mucus, sweat, saliva, tears, earwax) * Sebaceous products (fatty acids and lactic acid) * Enzymes and antimicrobials within secretions ## Footnote These substances play a vital role in pathogen defense.

Answer 170

* Defensins from neutrophils and epithelial cells disrupt bacterial membranes * Collectins enhance microbial recognition and can activate complement ## Footnote These components are part of the innate immune response.

Answer 171

Diverse microbes colonizing skin, eyes, mouth, nose, GI tract, upper airway, urethra, vagina ## Footnote The microbiome composition is individualized and shaped by various factors.

Answer 172

* Digestion (enzymes for fatty acids and complex polysaccharides) * Metabolites (synthesis of vitamins) * Chemical defense (antibacterial compounds) * Niche competition (blocks pathogen attachment) * Immune education (promotes protective responses) ## Footnote The microbiome plays a crucial role in health and disease prevention.

Answer 173

* Broad-spectrum antibiotics * Dietary shifts * Toxins * Infections * Hospitalization * Critical illness ## Footnote Dysbiosis can impair immune function and colonization resistance.

Answer 174

* Overgrowth examples: Candida albicans, Clostridioides difficile * Opportunists from the normal microbiome can cause disease when barriers or immunity fail ## Footnote Dysbiosis can lead to infections and complications.

Answer 175

* Skin: acidic, dry, keratinized * Respiratory tract: mucus plus cilia * GI tract: gastric acid, digestive enzymes * GU tract: urine flow and osmolarity ## Footnote These sites are equipped with defenses to protect against pathogens.

Answer 176

A protective response to injury or infection in vascularized tissues ## Footnote Inflammation is triggered by various factors and involves guardian cells.

Answer 177

Forms a fibrin–platelet mesh to stop bleeding, trap pathogens, and create a scaffold for healing ## Footnote This system is crucial for wound healing and preventing infection.

Answer 178

* Extrinsic (activated by tissue factor) * Intrinsic (activated by negatively charged surfaces) * Both converge at Factor X → thrombin → fibrin ## Footnote These pathways are essential for clot formation.

Answer 179

* Causes vasodilation * Increases vascular permeability * Induces pain * Smooth muscle contraction ## Footnote Bradykinin amplifies the inflammatory response.

Answer 180

* PRRs * Complement fragments * IgE crosslinking * Physical/chemical/thermal injury ## Footnote Mast cells release mediators that contribute to inflammation.

Answer 181

* Leukotrienes * Prostaglandins * PAF * VEGF * PDGF ## Footnote These mediators play roles in inflammation and healing.

Answer 182

* Fever * Leukocytosis * Acute-phase reactants ## Footnote These responses indicate the body is fighting infection or injury.

Answer 183

Less O₂ → cell death, infection risk, prolonged inflammation ## Footnote Ischemia can severely impair the healing process.

Answer 184

* Impaired leukocyte function * Higher infection risk * Lower growth factor production * More proinflammatory cytokines ## Footnote Obesity complicates the healing process.

Answer 185

Begins upon exposure to an antigen ## Footnote This immune response is specific and involves various immune cells.

Answer 186

* B cells → plasma cells (secrete antibodies) * T cells → Tc cells (kill infected cells) * Th cells → regulate immune response * Treg cells → suppress excessive reactions ## Footnote These cells coordinate the immune response.

Answer 187

In the thymus ## Footnote T cells originate in the bone marrow but mature in this primary lymphoid organ.

Answer 188

* IgG: Most common * IgM: First made during infection * IgA: Found in secretions * IgD: Receptor on B cells * IgE: Allergic reactions ## Footnote Each class has distinct functions in the immune response.

Answer 189

Blocking viruses or toxins from binding to host cells ## Footnote This is a direct action of antibodies against pathogens.

Answer 190

Binds to mast cells and basophils; triggers histamine release ## Footnote This response is crucial for combating large parasites.

Answer 191

* Autocrine * Paracrine * Endocrine ## Footnote These signaling methods help regulate body functions.

Answer 192

* Negative feedback: high levels stop release * Positive feedback: increases secretion ## Footnote Feedback loops maintain hormonal balance.

Answer 193

Short (seconds to minutes) ## Footnote Example: insulin lasts 3–5 minutes before breakdown.

Answer 194

* On the cell membrane (water-soluble hormones) * Inside the cytoplasm or nucleus (lipid-soluble hormones) ## Footnote The location determines the hormone's action inside the cell.

Answer 195

* On the cell membrane (for water-soluble hormones) * Inside the cytoplasm or nucleus (for lipid-soluble hormones) ## Footnote The receptor’s location determines how the hormone acts inside the cell.

Answer 196

* Cannot cross the membrane * Bind to surface receptors * Use second messengers to transmit signals * Responses are fast and short-acting ## Footnote Examples of second messengers include cAMP, cGMP, IP₃, calcium, and tyrosine kinase systems.

Answer 197

* Cross the cell membrane easily * Bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors * Directly influence gene expression * Effects appear slowly but last longer ## Footnote Examples include cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, and aldosterone.

Answer 198

At the base of the brain ## Footnote It is connected to the pituitary by the infundibulum (pituitary stalk).

Answer 199

* TRH (stimulates TSH release) * GnRH (controls FSH and LH) * GHRH & Somatostatin (regulate growth hormone) * CRH (stimulates ACTH release) * PIH (Dopamine) (inhibits prolactin) * PRH ## Footnote It also produces ADH and Oxytocin, which are stored in the posterior pituitary.

Answer 200

* Stores and releases ADH * Stores and releases Oxytocin ## Footnote Release is controlled by neurotransmitters: glutamate stimulates, GABA inhibits.

Answer 201

* Maintains water balance * Increases water reabsorption in kidney tubules * Triggered by high plasma osmolality or low blood volume * Inhibited by alcohol and excess fluid intake ## Footnote At high doses, ADH acts as vasopressin, causing vasoconstriction and raising blood pressure.

Answer 202

* Causes uterine contractions during labor * Promotes milk ejection during breastfeeding * Helps prevent postpartum bleeding ## Footnote Secreted in response to suckling or reproductive tract stimulation.

Answer 203

Melatonin ## Footnote It regulates circadian rhythms, sleep, and puberty timing.

Answer 204

* Helps maintain calcium balance * Used to treat osteoporosis, Paget’s disease, hypercalcemia, and bone metastasis ## Footnote Procalcitonin, its precursor, rises in infection and inflammation and aids in diagnosis.

Answer 205

* Negative feedback loop between hypothalamus, pituitary, and thyroid * TRH stimulates TSH release * TSH stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4 * High TH levels inhibit TRH and TSH ## Footnote Cold, stress, and low T4 increase TRH and TSH secretion.

Answer 206

* Increases thyroid hormone release from stored colloid * Stimulates iodide uptake and oxidation * Promotes synthesis of new thyroid hormone * Stimulates thyroid growth ## Footnote This includes cell enlargement and division.

Answer 207

* 90% T4 * 10% T3 ## Footnote In blood, most hormones are bound to thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG).

Answer 208

* Increase metabolic rate * Essential for growth and brain development * Affect protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism * Regulate heart rate and respiration ## Footnote They also influence skin, hair, and bone health.

Answer 209

* Stimulates osteoclast activity to release calcium into blood * Increases calcium reabsorption in kidneys * Enhances calcium absorption in intestines ## Footnote Chronic PTH elevation causes bone remodeling; low-dose PTH promotes bone formation.

Answer 210

Activated in the kidneys ## Footnote It enhances calcium absorption.

Answer 211

* Rising blood glucose * Parasympathetic input * Selected amino acids * Gut hormones ## Footnote Secretion is inhibited by hypoglycemia, sympathetic drive, high insulin, and prostaglandins.

Answer 212

* Promotes glucose uptake in muscle, fat, and liver * Stimulates glycogen, protein, and fat synthesis * Supports cellular uptake of K⁺, phosphate, and magnesium ## Footnote Insulin has anabolic effects.

Answer 213

* Modulates islet balance * Inhibits secretion of insulin, glucagon, and pancreatic polypeptide ## Footnote It fine-tunes carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.

Answer 214

* Enhance glucose-dependent insulin * Suppress glucagon * Slow gastric emptying ## Footnote GIP and GLP-1 also help preserve β-cell mass and support insulin stores.

Answer 215

* Stimulates gastric acid * May aid fetal islet development ## Footnote Ghrelin increases appetite and affects insulin sensitivity.

Answer 216

* Increase blood glucose via liver gluconeogenesis * Reduce glucose uptake by muscle and fat * Promote protein breakdown and lipolysis under stress ## Footnote Chronic stress can lead to muscle wasting, insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia.

Answer 217

* Suppress T-cell proliferation * Block phospholipase A₂, prostaglandins, and cytokines * Stabilize lysosomes ## Footnote Prolonged use increases infection risk and delays healing.

Adv Patho Exam 1 Flashcards

(241 cards)