1
Q
What are the two types of aggression
A
- proactive; based on term ‘cold blooded’, a planned method of getting what you want
- reactive; based on term ‘hot blooded’, angry and impulsive, accompanied by physiological arousal
2
Q
What comes under biological approach for explaining aggression
A
- neural explanation
- hormonal explanation
- genetic explanation
3
Q
What is the neural explanation for explaining aggression
A
- Limbic System
- Neurotransmitters => serotonin
4
Q
What is the limbic system
A
- involves structures such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus => implicated in reactive aggression
- plays key role in how an organism reacts to environmental threats
- believed to be a key factor in whether we respond aggressively or not to external stimuli
5
Q
What are different areas the limbic system connects to
A
- cingulate gyrus
- prefrontal cortex
6
Q
What does the limbic system do in relation to the cingulate gyrus
A
- responsible for focusing attention on emotionally significant events
7
Q
What does the limbic system do in relation to the prefrontal cortex (simple)
A
- PFC is involved in forward planning and anticipation of reward
8
Q
How does the hypothalamus play a role in the limbic system
A
- responsible for regulation of autonomic nervous system
- regulates responses to emotional circumstances
- damage causes inappropriate aggressive responses
9
Q
How does the amygdala play a role in the limbic system
A
- responsible for attaching emotional significance to sensory information
- limbic system believed to be hierarchical with signals being passed from lower systems to high in prefrontal cortex
- feelings are monitored and interpreted in prefrontal cortex, triggering a physical response
10
Q
How does the prefrontal cortex play a role in the limbic system (detail)
A
- feelings from amygdala are monitored and interpreted, triggering physical response
- crucial for regulating social behaviour and aggressive responses
- damage to prefrontal cortex would reduce the inhibition of the amygdala resulting in higher levels of aggression
11
Q
How do neurotransmitters such as serotonin play a role in aggression
A
- serotonin has a widespread inhibitory effect in brain, slowing down neural activity
- regulates different areas of brain
12
Q
What are examples of different areas that serotonin regulates
A
- prefrontal cortex
- frontal areas of brain
13
Q
How does serotonin regulate frontal areas of the brain
A
- works on frontal areas of brain to inhibit during of amygdala
- significant as amygdala controls fear, anger and other emotional responses
- thus has a calming influence
- low levels means people cannot control impulsive and aggressive behaviour
14
Q
How does serotonin regulate the prefrontal cortex
A
- regulates prefrontal cortex
- therefore lower levels of serotonin affect response to external stimuli
- means person becomes aggressive easily and cannot control responses
- person cannot anticipate risk and therefore impulsively engages in aggressive behaviour
15
Q
What are examples of positive evaluation points for neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- Kluver and Bucy (1939)
- Wong et al. (1997)
- Ferrari et al. (2003)
16
Q
What structures are in the limbic system
A
- hypothalamus
- thalamus
- hippocampus
- amygdala
- formix
- cingulate gyrus
17
Q
How is Kluver and Bucy (1939) a positive evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- early researchers who removed main areas of limbic system in rhesus monkeys
- amygdala, hippocampus and surrounding cortical areas
- found monkeys displayed a sense of emotional, motor, and vocal reactions which are normally associated with stimuli or situations eliciting fear and anger
- lesioned monkeys also lost social understanding of group hierarchies and tried to fight dominant larger members of group
- research demonstrates importance of limbic system in regulating aggressive responses
18
Q
How is Wong et al. (1997) a positive evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- neural explanations can be shown through neuroimaging such as MRI scans
- Wong undertook MRI scans of 19 violent male criminals in Broadmoor hospital
- compared size of amygdala with 20 ‘normal’ control subjects
- found volume of amygdala was significantly smaller in 19 violent criminals
- supporting role of amygdala and limbic system in aggression
19
Q
How is Ferrari et al. (2003) a positive evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- provided support for role of serotonin in aggressive behaviour
- allowed adult male rats to fight with each other at a specific time for ten days
- on eleventh day, rat wasn’t allowed to fight
- researchers found rat’s dopamine levels rose by 65% and serotonin reduced by 35%
- despite rat not fighting, experience had changed the rat’s brain chemistry
- however question raised whether low levels of serotonin cause aggression or they are a response to aggression being carried out
- cause and effect cannot be established lowering validity
- research still shows complexity of role of serotonin in aggressive behaviour
20
Q
What are examples of negative evaluation points for neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- extrapolation
- sample
- Mann et al. (1990)
21
Q
How is Mann et al. (1990) a negative evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- administered drug to 35 healthy adults
- researchers then used a questionnaire to assess aggression levels, which rose for males but not females
- shows gender differences in neural mechanisms
- also demonstrates issue of beta bias that is inherent in neural explanations of aggression
- shows males and females may not be subject to same physiological factors when explaining aggression
22
Q
How is sample a negative evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- lack of population validity
- Wong’s sample was relatively small
- inappropriate to generalise limited findings to wider population
23
Q
How is extrapolation a negative evaluation point for the neural mechanisms in aggression
A
- animals used for research to provide evidence for aggression in humans
- differences in physiology questions whether we can extrapolate research findings from animals to human aggressive behaviour
- despite monkeys and humans possessing similar neural structures, we cannot be sure that the processes involved in mediating aggression in humans are the same as those shown in monkeys
24
Q
What are the hormones implicated in aggression
A
- testosterone
- progesterone
25
What is testosterone
- main hormone which decides whether an embryo develops into a male or female
- this male sex hormone is an androgen responsible for development of masculine features
- promotes muscle strength and is responsible for the sex drive
26
How does testosterone influence aggression
- influence present from young adulthood onwards due to actions in brain areas involved in controlling aggression
- Sapolsky (1998) summarised research evidence in this area by describing how removing the source of testosterone in different species typically resulted in much lower levels of aggression
27
Who has shown evidence for testosterone causing human aggression
(NEED TO KNOW NAMES)
- Archer (2009) => men are more aggressive than women
- Dabbs (1990) => men have higher concentration of testosterone than women
- Daly and Wilson (1998) => testosterone concentration is highest between 21-35 and there is an increase in male-on-male aggression
- Carre and Olmsted (2015) => claim testosterone concentrations are not static but fluctuate rapidly in context of changes to social environment. Changes in testosterone levels appear to influence aggressive behaviour by increasing amygdala reactivity during the processing of social threat
28
What is progesterone
- female ovarian hormone which can help increase mood
- acts as a natural antidepressant to lower anxiety
- plays important role in female aggression
- levels vary during ovulation cycle and are lowest during and just after menstruation
29
Who has researched into the role of progesterone in aggression
- Ziomkiewicz et al. (2012)
- found negative correlation between progesterone levels and self reported aggression
- suggests low levels of progesterone is linked to increased aggression in women
30
What are positive evaluation points for hormonal mechanisms in aggression
- Wagner (1979)
- Giammanco et al. (2005)
31
How is Wagner (1979) a positive evaluation point for hormonal mechanisms in aggression
- research support by finding if testosterone was implicated in aggression, especially in non-human animals
- decided to test this theory by castrating mice
- found aggression levels fell
- provided support that testosterone is implicated in aggression
32
How is Giammanco et al. (2005) a positive evaluation point for hormonal mechanisms in aggression
- reviewed studies
- confirmed role of testosterone in aggression
- e.g. in male rhesus macaque monkeys, there is an increase in both testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour during the mating season
33
What are negative evaluation points for hormonal mechanisms in aggression
- lack of generalisation in animal studies to humans in research
- furthermore, Wagner’s (1979) research only provides correlational support for cause of aggression as research only demonstrates a relationship between lowered testosterone and lowered aggression
- does not confirm if testosterone is a cause of aggression
- biologically reductionist and deterministic
- however reductionism can be seen as a positive as well
34
What are genes
- consists of DNA strands
- DNA provides instructions for physical features of an organism
- may impact physiological features
- genes are transferred from parents to offspring
35
How can the link between genes and aggression be shown
- genetics
- twin studies
- adoption studies
- candidate genes
36
How do genes influence genotype and what is one study that investigated genotypes
- basic difference in men and women lie in genotype, most have 23 pairs of chromosomes
- XY is male and XX is female
- psychologists investigating aggression believed genetic cause of aggression could lie in Y chromosome
- particularly interested in investigating individuals with XYY genotype => super males
- shown in Court-Brown’s (1965) study who discovered 314 patients had XYY chromosome presentation
- put forward view that these patients remain hospitalised due to increased likelihood of aggressive behaviour
37
Where do psychologists who study genetic factors of aggression focus on
- focus on examining individuals with normal XY genotype
- psychologists have used selective breeding in animals
- found that aggression is a trait that can be transmitted from parents to offspring
- supports genetic explanation
38
What is the significance of twin studies in investigating aggression
- research with human subjects has focused on twin studies that have looked at the incidence of aggression displayed by MZ and DZ twins
- MZ share 100% of genes
- DZ share 50% of genes
- differences in concordance rates of aggression between these sets of twins have indicated that aggression has a genetic element
39
Who has carried out research into twins studies for the genetic factors of aggression
- Coccaro et al. (1997)
- studies pairs of male adult twins who were MZ or DZ
- found concordance rate for aggression defined as a direct physical assault for MZ was 50% and DZ was 19%
- concordance rate for aggression defined as verbal aggression was 28% for MZ and 7% for DZ
- figures high enough suggesting there is a genetic component, although concordance higher for physical
40
What is the basis behind adoption studies for the genetic factors of aggression
- similarities in aggression between adopted child and biological parent suggest genetic influences are operating
- similarities in aggression between adopted child and adoptive parents suggest environmental influences are operating
41
Who has carried out research into adoption studies for the genetic factors of aggression
- Rhee and Waldman (2002)
- carried out meta analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression and antisocial behaviour
- found genetic influences accounted for 41%
- research in line with findings of twin studies suggesting role of genetics to be important in aggressive behaviour
42
How can candidate genes influence aggression
- advances in genetic testing shows specific genes for aggression => MAOA gene
- responsible for production of the protein monoamine axidase
- allows metabolising of noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine
- gene dysfunction results in these neurotransmitters not being broken down
43
What happens if candidate genes are not broken down
- if adrenaline isn’t metabolised then too much adrenaline in body
- causes hypersensitivity in fight or flight and individuals may overreact to external stimuli and perceive threat where one does not exist
- increased levels of dopamine also link to aggressive behaviour
- serotonin has calming influence and low levels implicated reduction in control
44
What happens with low MAOA
- low activity of variant of MAOA gene (MAOA - L) then people likely to be aggressive
- MAOA - L (warrior gene)
- shown by Lea and Chambers (2007) who found this gene was possessed by 56% of New Zealand Māori men compared with 34% of Caucasians
- historically, Māori people have reputation for being ferocious warriors
45
Table showing consequences of a dysfunctional MAOA gene
46
What are positive evaluation points for genetic factors influencing aggression
- Coccaro et al. (1997)
- Godar et al. (2014)
- Brunner (1993)
- Stuart et al. (2014)
47
How is Coccaro et al. (1997) a positive evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- supports role of genetics and aggression as concordance rate of physical aggression in form of criminal behaviour for MZ twins was higher than DZ
- suggests role of nature plays a strong role in aggression
48
How is Godar et al. (2015) a positive evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- refined selective breeding by specifically removing certain genes in mice
- has been done with the MAOA gene
- MAOA selectively bred mice showed increased aggression and also has abnormal levels of serotonin, demonstrating relationship between genes and neurotransmitters
- when mice were given fluoxetine to raise serotonin levels, behaviour returned
- supports role of genetics, especially MAOA
49
How is Brunner (1993) a positive evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- link between MAOA -L gene supported
- studied 28 men from large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggression violent criminal behaviour, such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault
- these men possessed MAOA-L gene
50
How is Stuart et al. (2014) a positive evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- studied 97 men who had been involved in severe domestic abuse to their partners
- found most violent men had the faulty MAOA gene
- men engaged in the highest level of physical and psychological aggression and inflicted the worst injuries on their partners
51
What are negative evaluation points for genetic factors influencing aggression
- Theilgaard (1984)
- twin studies
52
How is Theilgaard (1984) a negative evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- undertook research into men with the XYY genotype and found that XYY can cause an increase in height in individuals but not aggression
- shows we cannot make generalisations about aggression as this research is howling no link between XYY and aggression
53
How is twin studies a negative evaluation point for genetic factors influencing aggression
- may lack validity
- twins share same environment
- however DZ twins may not share same environment to same extent as MZ
- e.g. MZ treated by parents and significant others in same way but DZ may not, especially if they are not the same sex
- means due to MZ twins not only having same genes but also identical environmental experiences may contribute to their aggression instead
54
What is an ethological explanation
- seeks to understand innate behaviour of animals by studying them in their natural environment
- focus on an ethological explanation is to try and account for behaviour in terms of its adaptive value to the specific species
- ethologists believe that by looking at animal behaviour, this helps understand human behaviour
- e.g. Lorenz (1966) geese
55
How can aggression be seen from an ethological approach
- aggression is seen as providing an adaptive function by ethologists
- aggression is seen in all animal species and is believed to be an innate behaviour
- if behaviour is innate, evolutionary psychologists propose behaviour must be beneficial for organism
- aggression as a behaviour can help survival, as aggression can protect resources
- can establish dominance hierarchies
56
What did Lorenz (1966) propose for aggression
- aggression in animals is often ritualistic
- argued is more adaptive than direct aggression, as symbolic aggression would help ensure organism was not harmed
- if organism sustained an injury as part of aggression, this could impair ability to reproduce
- therefore, ritualistic aggression such as teeth baring would have effect of deterring an opponent without physical harm being caused
57
What does the ethological theory propose
- aggression can be result of an evolved automatic biological response in the brain
- believed animals have built in neural structure which when exposed to specific stimuli, will cause release of an automatic behaviour response
58
How do inbuilt biological structures link to aggression according to the ethological theory
- inbuilt biological structure or process is called the innate releasing mechanism (IRM)
- environmental stimulus triggers IRM
- IRM releases specific sequence of behaviours
- consequential aggression behavioural sequence is called the fixed action pattern (FAP)
59
What are the main features of Lea’s (1984) FAP
- stereotyped, or relatively unchanging sequences of behaviours
- universal, because same behaviour is found in every individual of its species
- unaffected by learning, same for every individual regardless of experience
- ballistic, once the behaviour is triggered, it follows an inevitable course an cannot be altered before it is completed
- single purpose, behaviour only occurs in a specific situation and not in any other
- response to identifiable specific sign stimulus
60
What are positive evaluations points for ethological explanations for aggression
- Tinbergen (1951) undertook a experiment with male sticklebacks
- species of fish is territorial and aggressive
- in mating season, they develop red spot on underside
- Tinbergen observed male sticklebacks will attack another stickleback theorising red spot initiated aggressive behaviour
- to test, he presented male sticklebacks with a wooden model; if wooden model had red spot, stickleback would attack
- without red spot, stickleback would not react and there was no aggression displayed
61
What are negative evaluations points for ethological explanations for aggression
- Nisbett (1996)
- Goodall (2010)
- modal action patterns
62
How is Nisbett (1996) a negative evaluation point for the ethological approach
- one weakness of explanation is it assumes behaviour is innate so is uniform across all cultures
- found in lab experiment when South American white males were insulted they were more likely to respond aggressively than white North American males under same conditions
- demonstrates cultural differences would be problematic for ethological explanation to account for as there was a high variation in aggressive responses
63
How is Goodall (2010) a negative evaluation point for the ethological approach
- animal kingdom aggression is not always ritualistic
- studied chimpanzee behaviour for over 50 years
- observed chimpanzees that wages a brutal war against neighbouring chimpanzees and slaughtered whole group
- referred to this type of gang behaviour as systematic slaughtering by a stronger group
- this aggression is hard to explain from an ethological standpoint as the risk of injury to the attacking group is high and thus does not appear to be adaptive behaviour
64
How is modal action patterns a negative evaluation point for the ethological approach
- not all fixed actions patterns are fixed
- some evidence that learning and environmental factors can create variation within a species
- may be more appropriate to discuss modal action patterns rather than FAPs
- MAPs are behaviours that are instinctual but differ from one individual within the species compared to others
- difference may be due down to result of selective breeding of characteristics
65
What does the evolutionary approach say about aggression
- focus on changes in species over millions of years based on idea of natural selection
- behaviour that enhances survival and ultimately successful reproduction is perpetuated
- therefore makes sense aggression is a behaviour aiding survival and therefore ben passed on through generations
66
What are the different evolutionary explanations for aggression
- sexual jealousy
- bullying
- warfare
67
What is the evolutionary explanation of sexual jealousy
- major motivation explaining aggression in males from evolutionary perspective
- occurs due to man can never be sure whether they are father of their child => paternity uncertainty is result of cuckoldry
- therefore any investment in offspring who does not share male’s genes is waste of resources
- in fact, contributes to survival of male rivals genes and leaves father with fewer resources to invest in his own offspring
68
What is the significance of men in the evolutionary past in sexual jealousy
- men who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful
- psychological mechanisms have evolved to increase anti cuckoldry behaviour in males
- thus sexual jealousy is experienced more strongly in males than females
- leads to aggressive strategies men employ to keep partners and prevent them from straying
- male retention strategies
69
What are mate retention strategies in sexual jealousy
- direct guarding => male is vigilant over partners behaviour
- negative inducements => issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity
- physical violence => Wilson et al. (1995) asked women to report mate retention strategies to partners. Measured in terms of extent they agree with statements. Women who did agree with statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence from partners => 73% had required medical attention and 53% feared for their lives
70
What is the evolutionary explanation of bullying in aggression
- bullying occurs due to power imbalance => most powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against weaker person
- researchers traditionally viewed bullying as maladaptive behaviour
- however evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction
71
How is male bullying significant as an evolutionary explanation for aggression
- Volk et al. (2012) argued characteristics associated with bullying behaviours are attractive to females => dominance, acquisition of resources, and strength
- bullying has benefit of warding off potential rivals
- bullying would be naturally selected because males would have greater reproductive success
- may be beneficial for bully’s health as it was found teenage boys who gain reputation for being tough are less likely to experience aggression towards them as others avoid them
- benefits health as they do not experience stress of bullying (Sapolsky, 2004)
72
How is female bullying significant as an evolutionary explanation for aggression
- bullying often takes place within relationship
- method used to control partner and prevent infidelity which means they continue to provide resources for future offspring
- such behaviours would be naturally selected due to enhanced reproductive success (Campbell, 1999)
73
What is the evolutionary explanation of warfare in aggression
- Smith (2007) claims human warfare originated not only to gain valuable resources but also to attract mates and forge intragroup bonds
- displays of aggressiveness and bravery are attractive for females => shown in past where male warriors in traditional societies had more sexual partners and children => direct reproductive benefit
- aggression in combat also increases status leading peers to respect them
74
What are positive evaluation points for the evolutionary explanations for aggression
- gender differences
- real life application
75
How are gender differences a positive evaluation for evolutionary explanations for aggression
- evolutionary explanations explains gender differences in use of aggression
- gender differences can be explained through evolutionary perspective in terms of adaptive strategies
- e.g. Campbell (1999) argues not adaptive for female with children to be physically aggressive as she could put her own life and offspring’s life at risk
- more adaptive strategy would be verbal aggression whereas a man would use physical aggression
76
How are real life applications a positive evaluation for evolutionary explanations for aggression
- can be used to reduce bullying
- one strategy to reduce bullying is address and question why a bully needs to bully and ask what they feel they are lacking in
- another strategy is based on idea bullying is adaptive
- idea can lead to anti bullying strategies such as showing bully costs of bullying
77
What are negative evaluation points for the evolutionary explanations for aggression
- Thomas (1958)
- deterministic
78
How is Thomas (1958) a negative evaluation for evolutionary explanations for aggression
- does not explain cultural differences in human aggression
- Thomas studies Kung San people of Western Botswana and called them harmless as they had negative attitudes towards aggression
- children from young age discouraged from showing aggression
- these individuals who did show aggression lost status and respect in community
- shows cultural and societal norms are more powerful in shaping aggression
79
How is determinism a negative evaluation for evolutionary explanations for aggression
- biologically deterministic
- suggests we are aggressive due to ancestors and increased survival
- suggests aggression is out of our control
- says it is acceptable for males to use violence against female partner to retain them => male has no free will over his aggression
- does not sit well in court of law where law states we are legally responsible for all our actions and cannot be physically violent against partner
- ignores role of free will and is not relevant in real world
80
What is the social psychology approach to aggression
- focus on idea that aggresion is the result of an interaction between an individual’s characteristics and features of the situation in which the behaviour occurs
81
What are the social psychological explanations of aggression
- frustration aggression hypothesis (F-A)
- social learning theory
- deindividuation
82
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis based off of
- proposed by Dollard et al. (1939)
- based on psychodynamic explanation of catharsis
- Freud believed drive for aggression was innate
- only way to reduce aggression is to engage in activity which released it
83
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis
- Dollard et al. (1939) proposed if we experience frustration, this leads to aggression
- this aggression is a cathartic release of built up frustration
- Dollard explains if individual is prevented from achieving goal by some external factor, this leads to frustration which leads to aggression
- F-A recognises aggression is not always expressed directly for three reasons
- defence mechanisms
- weapon effect
84
What are the reasons suggested by F-A as to why aggression is not always expressed directly
- cause of frustration may be abstract
- cause of frustration may be too powerful and we risk punishment by being aggression against it
- cause of frustration may be unavailable at the time
85
How can the frustration aggression hypothesis be linked to defence mechanisms
- psychodynamic theory proposes we have ego defence mechanisms to protect ourselves when using aggression
- sublimation => using aggression in acceptable activities such as sports
- displacement => directing our aggression outwards onto something or someone else
86
What is the weapon effect
- Berkowitz (1969) proposed revised F-A
- argued frustration does not always lead to aggression
- states aggression would only occur in presence of certain cues
- e.g. cues such as presence of weapons will be more likely to trigger aggression
87
What are positive evaluation points for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- Green (1968)
- Berkowitz (1967)
88
How is Green (1968) a positive evaluation point for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- conducted lab experiment => asked male undergrad students to undertake jigsaw puzzle
- while they were completing puzzle, he organised 3 different conditions that were designed to raise frustration levels
- one condition imposed unattainable time limit, another jigsaw was impossible, another confederate issued derogatory remarks as they failed
- in second part, participants had opportunity to give shocks to confederate if he answered incorrectly on another task
- group who received insults from confederate gave highest levels of shocks
- all three groups gave more shocks than control group
89
How is Berkowitz (1967) a positive evaluation point for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- carried out lab experiment where participants given opportunity to shock confederate who angered them
- set up three different cues => one with aggression cue (gun), one with non aggressive cue (badminton racket), and one with no cue
- found those who were in presence of aggressive cue gave higher levels of shocks than others
- practical applications shed new light on gun control debate in America => if presence of guns leads to aggression, this weapon effect could have reaching implications for gun laws
90
What are negative evaluation points for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- ecological validity
- complexity
91
How is ecological validity a negative evaluation point for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- most research support for F-A has come from lab experiments
- questions ecological validity
- whether participants in lab experiments would carry out actual aggression when faced with external stimulus that incited aggression is not certain
92
How is complexity a negative evaluation point for the frustration aggression hypothesis
- link between frustration and aggression is more complex than theorised
- early research into F-A shows frustration does not always lead to aggression
- nothing automatic about the link between the two
- someone who feels frustrated may behave in a range of ways rather than be aggressive
- similarity someone who behaves aggressively does not always need to be aggressive, e.g. someone who has MAOA-L gene
- does not take into account other factors => deterministic
93
How is social learning theory (SLT) linked to aggression
- Bandura proposes aggression can be learnt by indirect mechanism of observational learning
- give main cognitive factors that mediate control of aggressive behaviour => meditational processes
94
What are the mediational processes that control aggression
- attention
- retention
- motor reproduction
- motivation
- self-efficacy
95
How does attention mediate control of aggression
- a person/child must attend to the aggressor
- so a child must pay attention to an act of aggression carried out by a role model
- e.g. when a child engages in a computer game or watches a violent film, they are attending to the aggression
96
How does retention mediate control of aggression
- to model the behaviour, it needs to be placed into LTM
- enables behaviour to be retrieved
- child needs to remember the aggression they have witnessed
97
How does motor reproduction mediate control of aggression
- the child needs to be able to reproduce the aggression => physical capacity
- child will not be aggressive if they are unable to do so
98
How does motivation mediate control of aggression
- individual must be expecting to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour
- child must expect they will get some kind of reward from carrying out aggression
- tends to happen through vicarious reinforcement => observer would see a model being rewarded or punished for their aggressive behaviour
99
How does self efficacy mediate control of aggression
- individuals must believe their behaviour will attain a goal
- must have confidence in their own ability to carry out the action and that they will be rewarded for that action
- self efficacy relates to factor of self belief in one’s actions
100
What did Bandura (1961) find about aggression
- aggressive reinforcement in form of imitation of family members was most prominent source of behaviour modelling
- parents are primary role model for children => through process of observation and identification their behaviour is modelled
- role models in media can also provide source of vicarious reinforcement leading to aggressive behaviour being replicated
- these role models can provide child with a script to guide their behaviour
101
What was Bandura’s (1961) study into aggression => method and findings
- equal amount of boys and girls 3-5 years old exposed to one of three conditions
- male and female adult role model behaving aggressively to BOBO doll, role models not behaving aggressively to BOBO doll, and control group where there were no role models
- all children then take to room one by one where they were exposed to toys but told they cannot play with them (induce mild frustration)
- then taken to room and allowed to play with toys
- found children seeing role model behaving aggressively to BOBO doll also copied behaviour
102
What are positive evaluation points of the SLT for aggression
- research support
- practical applications
103
What are negative evaluation points of the SLT for aggression
- environmental deterministic
- complexity
- FA hypothesis
104
How is research support a positive evaluation point for SLT for aggression
- Bandura undertook several studies supporting SLT
- Bandura (1963) conducted study with three experimental conditions
- filmed aggressive model, cartoon aggressive model, and live aggressive role model, control with no model
- matched pairs, 96 children 3-5 years matched for baseline aggression levels
- children played with BOBO doll and aggressive actions were counted
- concluded viewing of aggression was not cathartic but led to modelling of aggressive behaviour
105
How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for SLT for aggression
- children readily imitate models when they observe them being rewarded for behaviour, especially if they identify with them
- applies to modelling aggressive behaviour
- one way to reduce this is to reward non aggressive role models => same learning processes can thus reduce aggressive behaviour
106
How is environmentally deterministic a negative evaluation point for SLT for aggression
- underestimates influence of biological factors that could be more powerful in explaining aggression
- e.g. genes and neural hormonal factors
- research has shown aggression is very instinctive behaviour => based more on person’s biology than their environment
- means hormonal influences such as testosterone could be more powerful in inducing aggression than SLT
107
How is complexity a negative evaluation point for SLT for aggression
- Christianson (2006) studies Kung San people of Kalahri Desert
- found aggressive behaviour was rare in this society
- Kung San parents do not use physical punishment => no value placed on aggression
- no cultural norms for aggression and children do not display aggressive behaviour
- shows case for SLT being complex
- questions whether SLT in relation to aggression
108
How is FA hypothesis a negative evaluation point for SLT for aggression
- SLT can explain some forms of aggression,
- however, reactive aggression is harder to explain with SLT
- when aggression is carried out as a reaction to an external stimulus, this may be better explained by FA hypothesis rather than result of observational learning
109
What is deindividuation
- a psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on identity of a social group
- result may be decreased concern about evaluation of others
110
How can deindividuation be split
- crowd behaviour
- deindividuation and aggression
- reduced self awareness
- research on deindividuation
111
Who has done research into crowd behaviour of aggression
- Gustave Le Bon (1985)
- Festinger (1952)
112
What did Gustave Le Bon (1985) suggest about crowd behaviour
- usually, because we are easily identified by others, behaviour is constrained by social norms
- social norms tend to discourage aggression
- when we are in a crowd, we lose restraint and have freedom to behave in ways we wouldn’t otherwise
- lose senses of individual self identity and responsibly for behaviour
- disregard norms and even laws
- responsibility becomes shared throughout crowd, so we experience less personal guilt about directing harmful aggression at others
113
What did Festinger (1952) suggest about crowd behaviour
- coined the term deindividuation
- suggested there is a reduction of inner restraints where individuals are submerged in a group
- deindividuation has been used to explain violence in prisons, and also sporting events where large numbers of people are in close proximity to each other
114
Who has done research into deindividuation and aggression
- Zimbardo (1969)
- Dixon and Mahendran (2012)
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What did Zimbardo (1969) suggest deindividuation and aggression
- distinguished between individuated and deindividuated behaviour
- in an individuated state, behaviour is rational and normative => confirming to social norms
- in a deindividuated state, behaviour is emotional, impulsive, irrational, disinhibited and antinormative
- when in deindividuated state, we lose self awareness, stop monitoring and regulating our behaviour and ignore social norms
- conditions of state promoting aggression include darkness, drugs, alcohol and uniform
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What did Dixon and Mahendran (2012) suggest deindividuation and aggression
- anonymity shapes crowd behaviour
- we have less fear of retribution because we are a small and unidentifiable part of a faceless crowd
- the bigger the crowd, the more anonymous we are
- anonymity almost prevents us from being judged negatively
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Who has done research into reduced self awareness
- Prentince-Dunn and Rogers (1982)
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What did Prentice-Dunn and Rogers (1982) suggest reduced self awareness
- experience of deindividuation as part of faceless crowd creating a greater likelihood of aggression is not due to anonymity directly, but due to consequences of anonymity
- can be explained in two types of self awarenesses
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What are the two types of self awareness
- private self awareness
- public self awareness
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What is private self awareness
- concerns how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour
- reduced when we are part of a crowd
- attention becomes focused outwardly to events around us, so we pay less attention to our own beliefs and feelings
- we are less self critical and less thoughtful, promoting a deindividuated state
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What is public self awareness
- refers to how much we care about what other people think of our behaviour
- reduced in crows
- we realise we are just one individual amongst many, we are anonymous and our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others
- we no longer care how others see us, so we become less accountable for our aggressive actions
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Who has done research on deindividuation
- Dodd (1985)
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What did Dodd (1985) do and find out about deindividuation
- developed technique to demonstrate deindividuation
- asked 229 undergraduate psychology students “if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?”
- three independent raters rated students’ responses into antisocial or not
- results found 36% of responses were antisocial and 26% were criminal
- demonstrates connection between deindividuation as a result of anonymity, and subsequent aggression
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What are positive evaluation points of deindividuation
- Diener et al. (1976)
- Malmouth and Check (1981)
- Johnson and Downing (1979)
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What are negative evaluation points of deindividuation
- social learning theory
- normative
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How is Diener et al. (1976) a positive evaluation point for deindividuation
- conducted natural experiment examine effects of deindividuation on aggression
- on Halloween, concealed raters observed 1300 trick or treaters under different conditions
- conditions => anonymity, non anonymity, alone, in a group
- children given opportunity to steal sweets and money
- 57% of those in group and anonymous stole, compared to 21% in group but non anonymous
- demonstrates when in a group and anonymous, children more likely to behaviour in socially deviant way therefore supporting deindividuation
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How is Malmouth and Check (1981) a positive evaluation point for deindividuation
- conducted piece of research in North America
- asked the question “would you rape if you could not be caught”
- 35% of university students said yes, supporting theory that deindividuation can increase aggressive behaviour
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How is Johnson and Downing (1979) a positive evaluation point for deindividuation
- conducted lab experiment with 3 conditions
- female participants dressed in Ku Klux Klan outfits masking faces, dressed as nurses, normal clothes
- participants then had to give fake electric shocks to confederate
- participants in KKK outfits gave much higher levels of shocks to confederate than other groups
- demonstrates deindividuation when disguised on aggression
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How is SLT a negative evaluation point for deindividuation
- very difficult to separate effects of deindividuation from other explanations such as SLT
- sporting events, such as football have a long history of violence and aggression on the pitch and from fans
- but sports such as rugby and cricket also attract huge crowds yet have not experienced problems with anti-social behaviour that football has
- may suggests rather than deindividuation being responsible for aggression and crowd behaviour, it may be cultural factors internalised by SLT
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How is normative a negative evaluation point for deindividuation
- deindividuated behaviour is normative rather than antinormative
- deindividuation theory argues we behave in contrary to social norms (disinhibited aggression) when we are less aware of our private identify
- however in Social Identity Model of deindividuation, Spears and Lea (1992) argue deindividuation leads to conforming to group norms
- norms can be both pro social (helping) or anti social (aggression)
- happens because anonymity shifts an individual’s attention from their private identity to that of a group member
- suggests people in deindividuation remain sensitive to norms rather than ignoring them
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Where have dispositional and situational explanations of aggression been tested
- prisons
- form of institutional aggression
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What are institutions
- places where many people are often confined in cramped surroundings
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What is a situational explanation in terms of aggression
- social environment in the prison causes aggression
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What is a dispositional explanation in terms of aggression
- individual’s traits and characteristics that together create and individual’s identity (disposition) are the main factors in any aggression displayed by that individual
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Who studied dispositional explanations of aggression
- Irwin and Cressey (1962) => importation model
- DeLisi et al. (2011) => background
- Drury and DeLisi (2011) => gangs
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How did Irwin and Cressey (1962) investigate dispositional explanations of aggression
=> importation model
- individuals import characteristics into prison
- if individual comes from subculture where violence is the norm and is used to settle disputes, it will be used in prison
- model explains higher levels of aggression are a result of certain characteristics => would be violent in any setting
- often its younger inmates that behave violently
=> find it harder to adjust to prison life so engage in more conflicts as they see aggression as an appropriate way
- model argues it is not the situational pressures of prison but disposition of individuals
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How did DeLisi et al. (2011) investigate dispositional explanations of aggression
=> negative background
- studied group of juvenile offenders with negative backgrounds (trauma, anger, substance abuse)
- individuals were importing characteristics
- compared with control group of inmates with no negative features
- findings showed negative inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and acts of aggression
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How did Drury and DeLisi (2011) investigate dispositional explanations of aggression
=> gangs
- found invidious who had been members of gangs prior to imprisonment were more likely to commit various types of misconducts in prison
=> murder, hostage taking, assault with deadly weapon
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What are positive evaluation points for dispositional explanations of aggression
- Adams (1981)
- Camp and Gaes (2005)
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How is Adams (1981) a positive evaluation point for dispositional explanations of aggression
- found in American prisons, black inmates were more likely to be associated with violent acts compared to white inmates
- argument for this is that black prisoners tend to come for poorer backgrounds with higher crime rates
- imported their cultural norms into the prison
- supports importation model
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How is Camp and Gaes (2005) a positive evaluation point for dispositional explanations of aggression
- studied 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and predispositions to aggression
- half were randomly placed in low security prisons and half in high security
- findings show within 2 years, there was no significant difference between the prisons in terms of number of prisoners involved in aggression
=> 33% for low security and 36% for high security
- researchers thus concluded features of prison environment are less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics
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What are negative evaluation points for dispositional explanations of aggression
- Dilulio (1991)
- gender bias
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How is Dilulio (1991) a positive evaluation point for dispositional explanations of aggression
- importation model ignores other key factors that could be relevant in explaining aggression in prisons
- Dilulio claims important model ignores factors such as how the prison is run
- instead he proposed an administrative control model (ACM)
- states poorly managed prisons are more likely to have inmate violence
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How is gender bias a positive evaluation point for dispositional explanations of aggression
- most research has been undertaken on male prisoners
- androcentric to presume same reasons for male violence can be used to explain female violence
- may be other factors involved that can result in female prison aggression
- research can be accused of beta bias
- may be males import aggression into prison environment but there are differences to extent that dispositional or situational factors affect each gender
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What are situational explanations of aggression
- propose that aggression in prisons is the result of environmental factors
- social psychologists maintain that when individuals are in crowded conditions, this can cause a rise in aggressive behaviour
- additionally, by their very nature as a form of punishment, prisons are stressful environments
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Who has investigated situational explanations of aggression
- Skyes (1958) => deprivation model
- Cooke et al. (2008)
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How did Skyes (1958) investigate situational explanations of aggression
=> deprivation model
- aggression results from a number of environmental deprivations
=> deprivation of liberty
=> deprivation of autonomy
=> deprivation of goods
=> deprivation of heterosexual relationships
=> deprivation of security
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What does deprivation of liberty suggest in the deprivation model as a situational explanation of aggression
- prisoners are deprived of freedom
- this is the main form of punishment when an di visual is sent to prison
- they have to remain in the prison environment with no freedo at all
- prisoners often have to obtain permission to eat, sleep, shower, etc. (Blomberg and Lucken, 2000)
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What does deprivation of autonomy suggest in the deprivation model as a situational explanation of aggression
- prisoners have no power and very few choices
- leads to a feeling of almost helplessness among inmates
- can lead to frustration and aggression
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What does deprivation of goods suggest in the deprivation model as a situational explanation of aggression
- in prison, access to things normally taken for granted are restricted or denied entirely
- brings about a frustrated sense of failure to most prisoners
=> leading to aggression (Skyes, 1958)
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What does deprivation of heterosexual relationships suggest in the deprivation model as a situational explanation of aggression
- men may feel emasculated from the loss of heterosexual relationships
- feel less than a man
- additionally, greater opportunity for homosexual behaviour in prison may lead to anxieties for prisoners
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What does deprivation of security suggest in the deprivation model as a situational explanation of aggression
- prisoners may live in fear of aggression from other inmates
- leads to heightened sense of physical threat
- feeling of perceived continual threat can result in an aggressive response as a form of defence
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How did Cooke et al. (2008) investigate situational explanations of aggression
- claims that in order to understand institutional aggression, we need to consider the situational context where violence takes place
- argue that violent prisoners are only violent in certain circumstances
=> overcrowding
=> heat and noise
=> job burnout
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How can overcrowding act as a situational explanation of aggression (Cooke et al., (2008)
- a government report in 2014 (Ministry of Justice, 2014) attributed the record rates of murder, suicide and assaults to increased overcrowding in British prisons
- a Japanese study (Yuma, 2010) found that prison population density had a significant effect on inmates on inmate violence rates, even after controlling for other possible contributing factors
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How can heat and noise act as a situational explanation of aggression (Cooke et al., (2008)
- prisons tend to be hot and noisy places
- high temperatures and noise exacerbate effects of overcrowding and may predispose inmates to aggressive behaviour
- in a study by Griffitt and Veitch (1971), who studied students and found a combination of high temperatures and high population density produced more negative emotions than was the case with more comfortable temperatures and lower population density
156
How can job burnout act as a situational explanation of aggression (Cooke et al., (2008)
- job burnout among prison stag refers to the experience of being psychologically worn out and exhausted from a job and a gradual loss of caring about the people with whom they work
- has been linked to the development of violence in prison settings due to a deterioration in relationships with inmates (Maslach et al., 2001) and the overall functioning of the prison
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What are positive evaluation points of situational explanations of aggression
- Gaes et al. (1985)
- Wilson (2005)
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What are negative evaluation points of situational explanations of aggression
- Camp and Gaes (2005)
- McCorkle et al. (1995)
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How is Gaes et al. (1985) a positive evaluation point for situational explanations of aggression
- suggests overcrowding does not just lead to aggression and violence
- instead can also cause ill health and general misconduct
- proposes overcrowding can heighten stress
- results in an overreaction to other factors in the institution
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How is Wilson (2005) a positive evaluation point for situational explanations of aggression
- practical applications in understanding that the prison environment can lead to aggression
- Wilson set up 2 units in HMP Woodhill where overcrowding was reduced, music was introduced to reduce noisy conditions and temperature was carefully controlled
- found that initiating these conditions was a successful way to lower levels of aggression
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How is Camp and Gaes (2005) a negative evaluation point for situational explanations of aggression
- field experiment where they randomly allocated 561 male inmates to two different prisons (low and high security)
- inmates were matched on criminal history and predisposition to aggression
- found individuals were just as likely to behave aggressively in low sec prison (33%) as high sec (36%)
- demonstrates aggression in prison is more likely to be result of individual than situation
- low sec should have afforded less stress to inmates so there should have been lower levels of violence
- demonstrates dispositional factors are more important
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How is McCorkle (1995) a negative evaluation point for situational explanations of aggression
- investigated aggression in 371 US state prisons
- found little evidence supporting link between violence and overcrowding
- points out stress is experienced by most individuals in prison but not all resort to aggression
- therefore assumption that stress and frustration always lead to aggression is a flawed presumption
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How significant is media to aggression
- individuals live in media saturated world
- any form of communication can be defined as media
- computer games can be defined as a game played on a screen
- growing evidence that computer/video games have a more powerful effect on aggression than traditional screen based media
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How do computer/video games have a more powerful effect on aggression than screen based media
- player takes a more active role compared to a relatively passive viewer
- game playing is more directly rewarding for player => operant conditioning
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What is the impact of computer/video games having greater effects than screen media on aggression
- alternative measures of aggression used
- Taylor competitive reaction time task (TCRTT)
- lab measure
- participants deliver blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish (non-existent) opponents
- Bartholow and Anderson (2002) found students who played a violent computer game for 10 mins selected significant higher volumes of white noise than those playing non violent game
- e.g. Mortal Kombat and PGA Tour
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What is a positive evaluation point on media influences on aggression
- can be supported by SLT as a framework
- e.g. Bandura’s BOBO doll studies
- showed when role models were behaving aggressively, children copied behaviour through imitation and modelling
- similarly, when children are playing violent computer game which requires them to kill the villain, children will do so as their favourite hero does the same
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What is a negative evaluation point on media influences on aggression
- aggression is defined in many ways
- difficult to measure objectively
- e.g. DV in studies to measure violence in computer games is volume of white noise blasted at opponent
- however violence and aggression are not the same thing
- all violence is aggression but not all aggression is violent
- therefore effects depend very much on how aggression s defined
- questions validity of studies
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What are the theories that can explain aggression from computer games / media
- role of desensitisation
- role of disinhibition
- role of cognitive priming
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What does the role of desensitisation suggest
- with continual exposure to a stimulus, responses to that stimulus decrease
- if aggression presented daily, there is a reduction in responses to aggression
- under normal circumstances, sympathetic nervous system switches on in response to witnessing aggression
=> heart rate increases, adrenaline released, physiological stress response causes a desire to remove ourselves from object
- viewing aggression will cause initiation of evolved fight or flight response
- adaptive for ancestors
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Explain the role of desensitisation for our ancestors
- response was adaptive for ancestors and helped keep them alive
- however, it was adaptive for ancestors to become accustomed to environmental stimuli that were frequently encounter
- e.g. some tribes became tree dwellers fo their own safety
- on the face of it, living high in trees seems stressful and frightening
- but they become desensitised to fear
- psychologists proposed desensitisation can provide adaptive response to environment
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Explain the role of desensitisation for modern society
- environment consists of media saturated world
- aggression and violence often reported
- violence is a feature of many computer games
- proposed desensitisation as a response to violence viewed in computer games can have a negative effect
- individuals may not respond to real aggression with any physiological arousal e.g. fear
- result may be individuals more likely to accept violence and aggression and more likely to respond violently and aggressively when presented with the opportunity to do so
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What is a positive evaluation point of the role of desensitisation
- Weisz and Earls (1995)
- showed 86 male and 106 female uni students 1 of 4 films depicting various types of aggression
=> sexual aggression against a male, sexual aggression against a female, physical aggression, neutral film with no aggression
- after viewing, participants completed a 252 item questionnaire measuring acceptance of interpersonal violence, acceptance of rape myths, attraction to aggression and levels of empathy
- participants then viewed reenactment of a rape trial and completed a 23 item rape trial questionnaire
- showed males more accepting of interpersonal violence/rape myths, more attracted to sexual aggression, less sympathetic to victim, less likely to judge defendant as guilty, especially those who watched films depicting violence against males and females
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What is a negative evaluation point of the role of desensitisation
- most studies lack ecological validity
- carried out in labs
- measured aggression on questionnaire or with subsequent behaviour towards confederates
- raises issues of validity as to whether the measured violence would occur in a real world setting
- norms governing behaviour and particularly aggression behaviour in public may be more likely to inhibit aggressive response where repercussions could be fines/prison sentence
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Explain the role of disinhibition
- proposes normal restraints are loosened after exposure to media violence
- aggressive behaviour becomes normalised and norms governing behaviour become altered from non acceptance to acceptance
- one normalised aspect of aggression is aggressive response as a result of a real or imagined wrongdoing
=> if viewed aggression is seen as revenge, it it deemed normal and justified
- has a greater disinhibited effect on consequential aggressive behaviour
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Where can the role of disinhibition be learnt from
- social learning
- Bandura (1977) proposed we learn how to behave from observational learning of role models
- however as child grows, media becomes an increasingly powerful role model
- superheroes provide an aggressive role model in the name of justice
- adult films present role models (James Bond) which children may look up to and imitate
- however when aggression levels are normalised in role models, child can grow up with norms that aggression is socially acceptable as a response
- many computer games reward player for imitating violence
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What are positive evaluation points of the role of disinhibition
- Berkowitz and Alioto (1973)
- practical applications
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How is Berkowitz and Alioto (1973) a positive evaluation point for the role of disinhibition
- lab experiment
- participants saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate
- propose that aggression is more likely to occur if the viewed aggression is seen as an acceptable response and disinhibition is more likely to occur
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How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the role of disinhibition
- American army using games as a recruiting tool
- from perspective of armed forced, recruiting individuals with interest in violence and disinhibited response to aggression is beneficial for soldiers
- soldiers in war likely to behave in aggressive/violent way
- more beneficial for them to response aggressively as norm
- if they did not automatically respond aggressively in a threat situation, this would have issues for their own survival
- therefore role of disinhibition is not always a negative thing
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What is the role of cognitive priming
- children as young as 10 have been exposed to 8k murders and 100k other violence acts on TV (Huston et al., 1992)
- cognitive priming proposes influence of aggression in media/computer games provides individuals with scripts for response and behaviour when they perceive an aggressive stimuli
- maintain that there is a priming effect of media images on previously learnt behaviours or cognitive schema
- can activate memories and make aggression more likely
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How does cognitive priming work
- increase likelihood of aggression in players who learnt aggressive responses/hold aggressive schema
- child may play computer game where aggression is rewarded
- when they fin themselves in a potentially aggressive situation, they will have schema to win through aggressive response
- therefore violence in computer games has effect of priming an individual to violence
- can occur without conscious thought and become an automatic response to cues in environment
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What are positive evaluation points for cognitive priming
- Bushman and Anderson (2002)
- Fischer and Greitemeyer (2006)
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How is Bushman and Anderson (2002) a positive evaluation point for cognitive priming
- practical applications
- argue someone who habitually watched violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily
- more likely to interpret cues as aggressive and resort to violence as they have been primed
- suggests interventions could potentially reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases
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How is Fischer and Greitemeyer (2006) a positive evaluation point for cognitive priming
- found male participants who had been exposed to aggressive song lyrics about women were more likely to give higher levels of hot chilli sauce to female confederates than male confederates than those participants who heard neutral lyrics
- also found misogynistic lyrics result in males recalling more negative attributes of women and reporting higher levels of aggression towards women
- procedure was replicated with female participants and men hating song lyrics with similar results
- shows cognitive priming from song lyrics
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What is a negative evaluation point for the role of cognitive priming
- confounding variables
- e.g. research into effects of video games found violent games primes violent behaviour more than non violent games
- problem is that violent games tend to be more complex in gameplay than non violent games
- complexity is a confounding variable => its the complexity causing priming effect
- Zendle et al. (2018) found when complexity was controlled, priming effects of violent video games disappeared
- suggests findings supporting cognitive priming may be partly due to confounding variables, affecting validity of research
