1
Q
Define psychology
A
- the scientific study of the mind and behaviour
2
Q
Define science
A
- the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence
3
Q
Which philosophers have contributed to the emergence of psychology
A
- Rena Descartes
- John Locke
- Charles Darwin
4
Q
Who is Wilhem Wundt
A
- “father of psychology”
- first person to call himself a psychologist
- ideas stemmed from philosophical roots
- opened first experimental psychological lab which helped shape psychology as a science
- wanted to focus on the psychological processes of perception and structuralism
5
Q
Give details about the lab opened by Wilhem Wundt
A
- opened in 1879
- Leipzig, Germany
- designated to aid the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions that could facilitate the replication of results
- Wundt devised introspection as a way of studying internal mental events
6
Q
What is introspection
A
- the first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations
7
Q
What is the psychological process of structuralism
A
- theory of consciousness developed by Wundt
- involves use of introspection, self reports of sensations/views/feelings/emotions
- he wanted to document and describe the structure of human consciousness (introspection)
8
Q
How was structuralism tested
A
- involved Wundt and his workers recording their conscious thoughts and breaking them down into their constituent parts
- he wanted to investigate psychology the same as traditional sciences
- used scientific methods to investigate introspection
- paved way for psychology to be seen as a science and develop cognitive psychology
9
Q
How was introspection tested
A
- strictly controlled conditions in lab using same stimuli, same reaction times and same instructions
- individuals focused on present experiences
- involves person saying everything in their mind while doing activity
- must keep talking even if ideas are not clear
- must not hesitate => can use fragmented sentences and do not have to justify thoughts
- made research into introspection reliable so it could be replicated
- made psychology different from philosophical roots
- later realised mental processes difficult to study using introspection and encouraged a search for alternative methods
10
Q
Who questioned the emergence of psychology as a science
A
- Watson (1913)
- Skinner (1953)
11
Q
How did Watson (1913) question the emergence of psychology as a science
A
- argued process of introspection produced subject data
- varied person to person
- made it difficult to establish general principles
- proposed a truly scientific psych should restrict itself only to studying phenomena that could be observed and measured
- thus behaviourist approach was born
12
Q
How did Skinner (1953) question the emergence of psychology as a science
A
- brought methods of natural sciences into psych
- behaviour approach => controlled lab experiments
- following cognitive revolution, study of mental processes seen as scientific through inferences
- biological approach also makes use of experimental data => researchers take advantage of recent advances in tech to investigate physiological processes as they happen
- even though the scientific method is still to be fully embedded in psych, it has come a long way
13
Q
What is the timeline of psychology emerging as its own subject
A
- 17-19th century, psychology is a branch of philosophy known as experimental philosophy
- 1879, Wundt opens lab
- 1900s, Freud introduced psychodynamic approach
- 1913, Watson and Skinner establish behaviourist approach
- 1950s, Rogers and Maslow establish humanistic approach
- 1960s, cognitive approach reintroduced, SLT proposed by Bandura
- 1980s, biological approach
14
Q
What are positive evaluation points for introspection
A
- helped develop other approached in psych (behaviourism/cognitive), very useful phenomena used in psych that based formed basis of other approaches
- scientific sharing same qualities as traditional sciences such as making hypotheses, high level of control of variables as conducted in lab
- causality can be established allowing future behaviour to be predicted
- still used today in areas of therapy showing application to contemporary therapy used in modern society
- Wundt supports reductionism, consciousness could be broken down to basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole
15
Q
What are negative evaluation points for introspection
A
- Watson (1913) criticised introspection, it produces subjective data varying from individual to individual meaning it is not objective nor reliable
- not scientific or accurate, Wilson claims psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour that may exist outside of conscious awareness
- fails to explain how the mind works and the processes involved in thinking about a particular topic, psychologists cannot see how thoughts are generated so cannot be properly observed
16
Q
What are the different approaches
A
- behaviourist approach
- learning approach
- cognitive approach
- biological approach
- psychodynamic approach
- humanistic approach
17
Q
How is the behaviourist approach split
A
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
18
Q
What are key assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- concerned with observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured
- all behaviour is learned from environment and can be reduced to stimulus-response association
- little difference between learning that takes place in humans and non human animals allowing research to be carried out on animals as well as humans
19
Q
What is classical conditioning
A
- all behaviour is learnt rather than being innate or inherited
- learning through association
- stimulus produces same response as another stimulus because they have been consistently presented at the same time
20
Q
What are examples of classical conditioning
A
- Pavlov (1927) => salivating dogs
- Watson and Rayner (1928) => little Albert
21
Q
What was Pavlov (1927)
A
- investigated salivating reflex in dogs
- noticed dogs would not only salivate when food was placed in their mouths but also when certain stimuli appeared
- e.g. dog bowl or person who usually feeds them
- he explored how dogs had learnt that these stimuli meant food was on the way
- decided to see if he could teach dogs to salivate when he rang a bell
22
Q
What happened before conditioning for Pavlov (1927)
A
- food was unconditioned stimulus producing reflex of salivating which is an unconditioned response
- bell was a neutral stimulus producing no conditioned response
23
Q
What happened during conditioning for Pavlov (1927)
A
- the unconditioned stimulus of food was repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus of the bell
- eventually the dog associated the bell with food
24
Q
What happened after conditioning for Pavlov (1927)
A
- bell was a conditioned stimulus producing salivating in the dogs as a conditioned response
25
What is an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning
- any stimulus that elicits a natural response and does not have to be learned
26
What is an unconditioned response in classical conditioning
- any natural response that does not require learning
27
What is an neutral stimulus in classical conditioning
- any stimulus that does not elicit a response
28
What is an conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning
- a stimulus which was previously neutral but was constantly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
29
What is an conditioned response in classical conditioning
- when an unconditioned response is paired with a neutral response and then the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response
30
What are positive evaluation points for classical conditioning
- research support in being able to explain development of learning and phobias, evidence comes from Little Albert by Watson and Rayner => successful in explaining how learning can occur in animals and young children
- Pavlov’s research has helped apply classical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders, e.g. flooding and SD which are based on components of classical conditioning
31
What are negative evaluation points for classical conditioning
- validity
- generalisation
- Menzies
- deterministic
32
How is validity a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning
- must be cautious when using findings from Little Albert and Pavlov’s study
- conducted in lab setting
- different results may be gained from different setting
- lack ecological validity
33
How is generalisation a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning
- may not be strong in explaining how adults learn new behaviours
- limited to only explaining learning in young children and animals as shown in Watson and Rayner’s and Pavlov’s research
34
How is Menzies a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning
- criticises behavioural model
- studies people with hydrophobia
- found only 2% of sample encouraged negative experience with water
- therefore 98% of sample had phobia of water but never had a negative experience involving water
- means they had not learnt to be frightened of water
35
How is determinism a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning
- classical conditioning viewed as deterministic as it ignores role of free will in people’s behavioural responses
- anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation
- people are not passive states and they do have some control over how they might respond to an association between two stimuli
36
What is operant conditioning
- organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours
- behaviours produce consequences for organism
- some consequences may be positive and some negative
- if consequence of behaviour is positive then likely behaviour is repeated
- if consequence of behaviour is negative then likely behaviour is not repeated
37
How is operant conditioning different to classical conditioning
- responses are reinforced in operant conditioning but not in classical conditioning
- classical conditioning explains acquisition of a response while operant explains the maintenance of a response
38
What is reinforcement
- something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour
- two types: positive and negative
39
What is positive reinforcement
- occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism
40
What is negative reinforcement
- occurs when behaviour removes something aversive and returns the organism to the pre aversive state
41
What is primary and secondary reinforcement
- primary reinforcement is reinforcement meeting natural needs such as food to take away hunger or water to take away thirst
- secondary reinforcement is reinforcement meeting all needs such as money
- types of positive reinforcement
42
What is punishment
- occurs when a behaviour leads to an unpleasant consequence
- decreases likelihood that the behaviour will occur again
- two types: positive and negative punishment
43
What is positive punishment
- when something unpleasant is added to a person’s life that was not there before
44
What is negative punishment
- when something pleasant is removed from a person’s life
45
Who investigated operant conditioning
- Skinner (1953)
- conducted a study on rats in a decide called the Skinner Box
- Skinner Box was a cage which has loud speakers, lights, a level, a door and a floor which could be electrified
46
What happened in Skinner (1953)
- one hungry rat at a time placed in Skinner box and allowed to freely run around
- rat might accidentally press lever and be rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the Skinner box (positive reinforcement)
- rat then continues to press level in order to receive a food pellet in future, as rat soon learned pressing lever led to reward
- rat could also learn pressing lever could avoid something unpleasant
- by pressing levers rat could avoid receiving electric shock (negative reinforcement)
47
What are schedules of reinforcement
- means there are different methods of reinforcement that might occur, e.g.
- continuous reinforcement => every time rat presses lever they always receive food pellet
- fixed interval => the rat pressed the lever and only receives a food pellet during a fixed interval only
- fixed ratio => the rat must press the lever for a fixed number of times and then it receives the pellet
48
What are positive evaluation points for operant conditioning
- Paul and Lentz
- experimental method
- nature/nurture
49
How is Paul and Lentz a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning
- practical applications
- token economy used in institutions as a form of behaviour modification
- token economies work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges
- research by Paul and Lentz used a token economy to treat patients with SZ
- found their behaviour became more appropriate
50
How is experimental method a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning
- Skinner box relied on experimental method
- highly controlled conditions to discover relationship between variables
- cause and effect relationship could be established
51
How is nature/nurture a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning
- nurture side
- states learning occurs due to environmental factors and external stimuli rather than biology
- therefore by manipulating factors in the environment, this can have an effect on learning and behaviour and is supported by nurture
52
What are negative evaluation points for operant conditioning
- determinism
- ethics
- biological approach
53
How is determinism a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning
- Skinner ignores concept of free will
- suggests past experiences will affect future behaviour
- people/animals have no control over their actions or the behaviours they show
- deterministic view which does not account for free will
54
How is ethics a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning
- rats and pigeons often placed in Skinner box in stressful and aversive conditions
- could have a negative effect on the psychological and physical health of the animals
- issue of generalising results from animals to humans
- animals are very physiologically different to humans so results may not be applicable to humans
55
How is biological approach a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning
- ignores biological approach
- biological approach would argue against behaviour approach
- would state behaviour cannot be learnt but instead it heavily influenced by the role of genes/hormones/biochemical and neural mechanisms
- therefore other approaches must be considered when examining the influences upon behaviour
- operant conditioning cannot explain all behaviour, e.g. do people learn to be aggressive
56
What are positive evaluation points for the behaviourist approach
- scientific
- principles
- real life applications
57
How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- behaviourism was able to bring language and methods of natural sciences in psych
- done by focussing on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings
- by focussing on importance of scientific processes (objectivity, replications), behaviourism was influential in the development of psych as a scientific discipline
58
How is principles a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- behaviourist approach developed laws and principles
- enabled psychologists to predict and control behaviour
- however, it raises ethical concerns
- the approach could be used to control people against their wishes
59
How are practical applications a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems
- e.g. SD and flooding from classical conditioning for treating psychological disorders and phobias
- e.g. token economy from operant conditioning for improving behaviours of SZ patients
60
What are negative evaluation points for the behaviourist approach
- mechanistic
- reductionist
- deterministic
- ethics
- generalisation
61
How is mechanistic a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- from a behaviourist perspective, animals and humans are seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment
- can learn new behaviours unquestionably and have little conscious thought
- minimises free will
- other approaches (cognitive) emphasise importance of mental events during learning
- therefore behavioural approach may apply less to humans than animal behaviour
62
How is reductionist a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- environmentally reductionist
- focuses on a lower level of explanation than other approaches
- stimulus-response associations lack meaning when attempting to explain complex human behaviours
- e.g. attachment
63
How is deterministic a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- environmentally deterministic
- sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned
- Skinner suggested everything we do is the suit total of our reinforcement history
- ignores idea of free will which may also influence behaviour
64
How is ethics a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- although experimental procedures enabled behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over subjects, manny critics questioned ethics of conducting such investigation
- animals involved were exposed to stressful and aversive conditions
- may have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation
65
How is generalisation a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach
- uses non human animals for research
- critics claim this tells us little about human behaviour because humans have cognitive factors and emotional states that influence their behaviour
- means findings cannot be extrapolated and applied to humans
66
What is the social learning theory
- new patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt though observing the behaviour of others
- during learning, people perform behaviours and observe different consequences
- e.g. punishment or reinforcement
- behaviour is learnt from the environment and also considers cognitive processes
67
What are the assumptions of social learning theory
- behaviour is learned through experience
- specifically through observation and imitation within a social context
68
Who proposed social learning theory
- Bandura (1977)
69
What were the points proposed by Bandura (1977) for SLT
- modelling
- imitation
- identification
- vicarious reinforcement
- meditational processes
70
What is modelling in SLT
- social learning requires a person to model or carry out the behaviour
- allows observer to learn the behaviour
- model can be live (parent, teacher, peer) or symbolic (TV character)
- models provide examples of behaviour which can be learned by imitation
71
What is imitation in SLT
- children learn behaviours via imitation
- modelled by significant others
- tends to be faster than classical or operant conditioning
- key characteristics of successful imitation include
=> characteristics of the model (age, gender)
=> the observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown
=> the observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)
72
What is identification in SLT
- extent to which the observer relates to the model // feels they are similar to them
- so they could experience same outcomes as model
- person would aim to be like the models as much as they could
- children likely to identify with model of same sex as themselves in order for social learning to be effective
73
What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT
- individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the reward/punishment they receive
- people do not need to experience rewards/punishments directly to learn
- may learn behaviours but not perform because they have learnt the behaviour leads to punishment if displayed
74
What are mediational processes in SLT
- social learning places importance on internal cognitive mediational processes
- observer must form a mental representation of behaviour displayed by model and likely consequences of behaviour in terms of expectancies
- observer might display learned behaviour, provided there is the expectation that positive consequences are more likely to occur than negative
- 4 points
75
What are the different points of mediational processes in SLT
- attention => observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the mode
- retention => observer must remember behaviour of model
- motor reproduction => observer must be able to perform the behaviour
- motivation => observer must be willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards
76
Who carried out research into SLT
- Bandura (1961)
- BOBO doll experiment
77
What was the sample for Bandura (1961) and how were they split into groups
- 72 children ages 3-7
- 36 boys 36 girls
- 3 groups
=> model behaving aggressively towards BOBO doll
=> model not behaving aggressively
=> control group where there was no model
78
What was the procedure for Bandura (1961) into SLT
- children split into groups and watched video of model unless in control group
- aggressive model displayed distinctive aggressive acts towards doll => strike with mallet and verbal aggression “POW”
- children then taken to a room with toys one by one but told they cannot play to induce mild frustration
- children then taken to a room one by one with toys including a BOBO doll (mallet, dart gun and other non aggressive toys as well) and were told they could play => observed for 20 minutes
79
What were the findings for Bandura (1961) into SLT
- children who observed aggressive model reproduced same behaviour towards BOBO doll
- children who observed non aggressive model showed no aggression to BOBO doll
- 33% of aggressive group repeated verbal aggression heard “POW”
- 0% of child in non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression
- in a follow up study, children observed a model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour
=> increased likelihood children are aggressive (vicarious reinforcement)
- boys more likely to be aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression highest when model was same gender
80
What was the conclusion for Bandura (1961) into SLT
- aggression can be learned through social learning such as meditational processes, observation, modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement
81
What are positive evaluation points for SLT
- Akers (1998)
- Fox (2009)
- reciprocal determinism
- comprehensive
82
What are negative evaluation points for SLT
- causality
- biological approach
- demand characteristics
- inferences
- abstract notions
83
How is Akers (1998) a positive evaluation point for SLT
- found criminals engage in more criminal behaviour when exposed to model they can identify with
- e.g. same gender/age
- if model receives positive outcome for committing crime, this increases likelihood observer will also commit crime
84
How is Fox (2009) a positive evaluation point for SLT
- more effective when model is similar to observer
- if observer is similar to model, makes it easier for observer to visualise themselves in place of model
- Fox found evidence suggesting when observer played computer game that had a similar looking model, they were more likely to engage in same behaviours
- therefore SLT seems to be effective especially when model is similar
85
How is reciprocal determinism a positive evaluation point for SLT
- less determinist than behavioural approach
- Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism
=> we are not merely influenced by external environment but we also exert influence upon it through behaviours we choose to perform
- element of choice suggests there is some free will
- thus a better explanation of behaviour than the behavioural approach
86
How is comprehensive a positive evaluation point for SLT
- SLT gives a more comprehensive view of learning than behavioural approach
- recognises importance of behavioural and cognitive factors when examining how people learn new behaviours
87
How is causality a negative evaluation point for SLT
- SLT does not take into account cause and effect
- e.g. research found increases associations with peers increases likelihood of delinquencies
- however cannot assume delinquency is caused by SLT alone
- other factors could cause => deviant and poor attitudes
- Siegel and McCormick (2006) found young people who have deviant attitudes tend to seek out similar peers accounting for delinquency behaviour
88
How is biological approach a negative evaluation point for SLT
- SLT ignores other influences on behaviour
- e.g. biological or genetic factors
- e.g. Bandura found boys were more affressive than girls regardless of experimental situation
- may be due to testosterone
89
How is demand characteristics a negative evaluation point for SLT
- many of Bandura’s idea were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab setting
- lab studies often criticised as participants know they are in a study so are more likely to show demand characteristics
- it has been suggested the children behaved in a way they thought to by being aggressive to the BOBO doll
- thus research lacks ecological validity as it tells us little on how children learn aggressive in everyday life
90
What is the cognitive approach
- argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
- e.g. memory, perception and thinking
91
What are key assumptions of the cognitive approach
- the role of models
- the role of schemas
- cognitive neuroscience
92
What is the role of models as an assumption of the cognitive approach
- making inferences
- going beyond immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes than cannot be observed
- two types of models
=> theoretical models and computer models
93
What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach
- simplified representations based on current research evidence
- often pictorial
- represented by boxes and arrows indicating cause and effect relationship
- e.g. information processing approach
=> suggests information flows through cognitive system in sequence of stages
=> includes input, storage and retrieval, e.g. multi store model of memory
94
What are computer models in the cognitive approach
- the mind is compared to a computer
- similarities in the way information is processed between thw two
- central processing unit => brain
- coding => turning information into accessible format
- stores => hold information
95
What is the role of schemas as an assumption of the cognitive approach
- mental representations of experience/knowledge/understanding
- help organise/interpret information
- help predict what will happen based on experience
- enables us to process vast amounts of information fast
- prevents becoming overwhelmed by stimuli
96
What is the role of schemas as an assumption of the cognitive approach (negatives)
- can distort interpretation of sensory information
- leads to perceptual errors / inaccurate memories
- cause bias recall
- negative / faulty schema = bad mental health
97
Who conducted research into the role of schemas
- Bartlett (1932)
98
What did Bartlett (1932) investigate for the role of schema
- lab study
- English participants asked to read Native American folk tale
- unfamiliar and strange story as it came from different culture
- participants had to read the story and then recall after different lengths of time
99
What were the findings of Bartlett (1932) into the role of schemas
- all English participants changes story to fit their schema
- details became more English containing elements of English culture
- details of ghosts left out
- order was changed to be more logical
- as more time passed between recalling, less information was remembered
100
What was the conclusion of Bartlett (1932) into the role of schemas
- people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information
- dependent upon culture to an extent
101
What is cognitive neuroscience as an assumption of the cognitive approach
- scientific study of influence of brain on mental processes
=> neurobiological structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry
- practical applications
=> brain imaging; PET and fMRI used to locate different types of memory to different areas
=> episodic = hippocampus
=> semantic = temporal lobe
=> procedural => cerebellum
- led to more effective treatments for memory disorder
102
Who has carried out research into cognitive neuroscience
- Maguire (2000)
- a study of taxi drivers’ brains
103
What was the aim of Maguire (2000)
- wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was predetermines or susceptible to plastic changes in response to environmental stimulation
- taxi drivers undergo extensive training making an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation
- aim was to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation
104
What was the procedure of Maguire (2000)
- 32 healthy males, average age of 44
- split into 2 groups
- one group were 16 licensed London taxi drivers => worked for at least 18 months
- second group were 16 males in a control group who had never driven taxis
- MRI scans of brain were taken and analysed
105
What were the findings of Maguire (2000)
- MRI showed right posterior hippocampus in brain of taxi drivers was larger than control group
=> related to length of taxi driver’s time in job
- positive correlation between amount of time spent as taxi driver and volume in right posterior hippocampus
=> responsible for storing visual representations of environment
=> links to fact taxi drivers have to navigate around streets of London
106
What was the conclusion of Maguire (2000)
- shows importance of MRI scans and how certain parts of brain are responsible for navigation
- can help people with poor navigational skills and why they may have them and even brain damaged patients
107
What are positive evaluation points of the cognitive approach
- scientific
- practical applications
- determinism
- negative schema
108
How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- approach uses highly controlled and rigorous methods of study to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes
- involved use of lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data
- enabled biology and cognitive psych to come together establishing a credible scientific basis
109
How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- most dominant approach and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
- e.g. AI and development of thinking machines (robots)
- also has had a vast influence of therapies
- e.g. CBT to treat depression
110
How is determinism a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- founded on soft determinism as it recognises contribution of free will before responding to a stimulus
- known as a more reasonable interactionist position compared to behaviourist and biological approaches which are hard deterministic
111
How is negative schema a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- cognitive psych has been used to explain the development of negative schemas
- can aid understanding of mental illnesses
- e.g. depression
112
What are negative evaluation points of the cognitive approach
- machine reductionist
- validity
- objectivity
113
How is machine reductionist a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- cognitive approach uses computer models
- phrases like storage and retrieval taken directly from computing
- however there is an important difference between the sort of processing that takes place
- computer analogy ignores
=> motivation
=> emotion
=> forgetting
=> mistakes
=> ignoring information
114
How is validity a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- cognitive psych suffers to some extent from being too theoretical and abstract in nature
- psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from observed behaviour
- similarly many studies use word lists tested under lab conditioning
- not applicable to everyday life
- lacks external validity
115
How is objectivity a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach
- does not give a full picture about what is really going on inside the working mind
- psychologists make inferences about cognitive processing
- may be based on limited information available frmo research
- questionable whether psychologists can really understanding and explain thinking by using inferences alone
116
What is the biological approach
- the study of the biology of behaviour
- examines the relationship between mind and body, neural mechanisms and heredity
- everything psychological begins on a biological basis
117
What are key assumptions of the biological approach
- mechanisms of heredity
- evolution and behaviour
- biological structures and behaviour
- neurochemistry and behaviour
118
What is mechanisms of heredity as an assumption of the biological approach
- heredity is the passing of characteristics
- can be physical or psychological
- carry instructions for certain characteristics but how the gene develops depends on interaction with other genes and influence of environment
- extent to which a psychological characteristic is detained by the genes or environment is known as the nature-nurture debate
- genetic basis of behaviour is examined through twin studies
119
What is a genotype
- genetic makeup
- genes an individual possesses
120
What are different components of heredity
- genotype
- phenotype
121
What is a phenotype
- the way genes are expressed through physical, behaviours and psychological characteristics
- influenced by environmental factors
122
How are twin studies used in the biological approach
- comparing concordance rate between twins
- MZ twins share 100% of genes
- DZ twins share 50% of genes
- if MZ twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than DZ twins, there is a genetic basis
123
What is evolution and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach
- Darwin proposed theory of natural selection // survival of the fittest
=> any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
- happens naturally in nature
- characteristics possessed by an individual that are advantageous are selected through reproduction to be passed on
124
What is biological structures and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach
- involves both nervous system and endocrine system
- nervous system split into 2 parts
125
How is the nervous system split
- central nervous system
- peripheral nervous system
126
What is the central nervous system
- compromises of brain and spinal cord
- act as centre from which individual is controlled
- e.g. the cognitive processing of the brain
127
What is the peripheral nervous system
- compromises of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
- somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is pivotal for movement
- autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and involved in fight or flight response
128
What is the endocrine system
- maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands
- most important gland is the pituitary gland
=> located in brain
=> master gland as it instructs other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary
129
What is neurochemistry and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach
- split into sections
- influence of neurotransmitters
- influence of hormones
- influence of psychoactive drugs
130
What is the influence of neurotransmitters as part of the biological approach
- chemicals released by neurons to send signals from one to another
- affect behaviour
- e.g. low serotonin linked to depression
131
What is the influence of hormones as part of the biological approach
- hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands
- biological psychologists argue hormones levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual
- e.g. high testosterone being linked to aggression
132
What is the influence of psychoactive drugs as part of the biological approach
- affects NTs
- e.g. cocaine blocks reuptake do dopamine
- leads to a rush of euphoria
- OCD
=> serotonin has a role in preventing repetition of tasks
=> treatment, SSRIs reduce symptoms
133
What are positive evaluation points of the biological approach
- scientific
- practical applications
- genetic predisposition
134
How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the biological approach
- biological approach uses scientific method
- use of experimental method
- take place in highly controlled environments
- replicability increases
- increases reliability
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How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the biological approach
- biological approach has practical applications
- e.g. knowledge about neurochemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) led to development of drug treatments (SSRIs) correcting imbalance
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How is genetic predisposition a positive evaluation point for the biological approach
- if people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorders, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influences
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What are negative evaluation points of the biological approach
- reductionist
- deterministic
- screening
- causality
- evolution
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How is reductionism a negative evaluation point for the biological approach
- biological approach is biologically reductionist
- ignores role of emotional and cognitive factors
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How is screening a negative evaluation point for the biological approach
- recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour have led to concerns about how this information could be used
- could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition
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How is causality a negative evaluation point for the biological approach
- no cause and effect relationship
- unclear to find one
- do low serotonin levels cause depression or does depression cause low serotonin levels
- can only assume it is a relationship
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How is determinism a negative evaluation point for the biological approach
- biologically deterministic view
- sees human behaviour as being governed by internal, biological causes which we have no control over
- no control leads to assumption of a criminal gene
- ignores role of free will
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How is evolution a negative evaluation point for the biological approach
- unclear as why some genes have been passed on through generations as they are not all for maintaining survival
- e.g. A1 variant of DRD2 gene has links to addiction
- therefore evolutionary approach has limited explanatory power
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What is the psychodynamic approach
- suggests adult behaviour reflects complex dynamic interactions between conscious and unconscious
- believes psychopathology is caused by conflict between conscious and unconscious thoughts
- emphasises importance of childhood processes
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What are key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- role of the unconscious mind
- structure of personality
- defence mechanisms
- psychosexual stages
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What is the role of the unconscious as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach
- Freud believed there are three levels to the mind
- all levels of the mind have influences on behaviour
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What are the three levels of the mind in the psychodynamic approach
- conscious mind
- preconscious mind
- unconscious mind
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What is the conscious mind in the psychodynamic approach
- contains thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of
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What is the preconscious mind in the psychodynamic approach
- contains thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they wanted to
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What is the unconscious mind in the psychodynamic approach
- largest part of the mind
- inaccessible
- most everyday actions and behaviours that are not controlled consciously are the product of the unconscious mind
- reveals itself in slips of the tongue => Freudian Slips
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Give more details about the role of the unconscious as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach
- mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts/feelings/memories in mind from reaching the conscious mind
- would cause anxiety if they did
- during psychoanalysis, therapist (psychoanalyst) tries to access unconscious mind of patients using free association and dream interpretation
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What is the structure of personality as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach
- personality has a tripartite structure
- made up of three parts
- experiences and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves
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What are the three parts of the personality in the psychodynamic approach
- id
- ego
- superego
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Explain the role of the id in the psychodynamic approach
- formed between birth and 18 months of age
- it is the unconscious mind
- focuses on the self
- irrational anf emotional
- deals with feelings and needs
- seeks pleasure, operating on the pleasure principle
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Explain the role of the ego in the psychodynamic approach
- formed from around 18 months until 3 years of age
- conscious mind
- rational and obtains a balance between the id and superego
- operates on the reality principle
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Explain the role of the superego in the psychodynamic approach
- formed between 3 and 6 years of age
- in the unconscious mind
- acts as a conscious or moral guide
- based on parental and societal values
- operates on the morality principle
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What is defence mechanisms as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach
- help ego manage conflict between id and superego
- provide compromise solutions to deal with unresolvable conflict
- provide a strategy to reduce anxiety => weakens ego’s influence
- different types
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What are the different types of defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach
- repression
- denial
- displacement
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Explain repression as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach
- unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts
- however, repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour
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Explain denial as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach
- refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation
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Explain displacement as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach
- occurs when the focus of a strong emotion is expressed on an alternative person or object
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What is psychosexual stages as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach
- Freud believed personality developed through a sequence of 5 stages
=> psychosexual stages
- emphasise most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido)
- at each stage, this energy is expressed differently
- Freud believed parents played an important role in a child’s progression through the psychosexual stages
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What is the role of parents in the psychosexual stages of the psychodynamic approach
- if the child is allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation occurs
- fixation is when the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred
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What are the different psychosexual stages and when are they present
- oral => 0-2 years
- anal => 2-3 years
- phallic => 3-6 years
- latent => 6-12 years
- genital => 12+ years
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Explain the oral stage of the psychodynamic approach
- focus of pleasure is the mouth and the control of sucking, tasting and biting
- consequence if resolution => trusting and able to give/receive affection
- consequence if unresolved => oral fixation => smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical
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Explain the anal stage of the psychodynamic approach
- focus of pleasure is the anus
- child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
- consequence if resolved => can deal with authority figures
- consequence if unresolved
=> anal retentive personality => perfectionist and obsessive
=> anal expulsive personality => thoughtless and messy
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Explain the phallic stage of the psychodynamic approach
- focus of pleasure is the genital area
- child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex
- consequence if resolved => adapts the behaviours and traits of the same sex
- consequence if unresolved => narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual
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Explain the latent stage of the psychodynamic approach
- focus is on the mastery of the world and social relationships
- earlier conflicts are repressed
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Explain the genital stage of the psychodynamic approach
- sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
- consequence if resolved => individual is a well adjusted adult
- consequence if unresolved => difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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What is the Oedipus complex
- during phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards mothers and hatred for rival in love (fathers)
- fearing that father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for mother and identify with father
- in doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (superego)
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What is the Electra complex
- during phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father
- they also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this
- over time, girls give up desire for father and replace this with a desire for a baby
- in turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (superego)
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What are positive evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach
- appeal
- practical applications
- Little Hans
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What are negative evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach
- falsifiability
- sample
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How is appeal a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach
- psychodynamic concepts such as defence mechanisms have intuitive appeal
- most people appreciate the ideas of denial, repression and displacement
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How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach
- led to development of psychoanalysis
- a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders
- laid foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry
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How is Little Hans a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach
- supports Oedipus complex
- however, Oedipus complex could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts and experiences through dream analysis
- subjective interpretations, open to investigator bias
- lacks scientific rigour
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How is falsifiability a negative evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach
- key concepts of the psychodynamic approach lack falsifiability
- unconscious processes
- difficult to test
- e.g. unconscious mind and defence mechanisms
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How is sample a negative evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach
- concepts of psychodynamic approach are based on small samples due to reliance of the case study method
- poses problems of generalisability
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What is the humanistic approach and what are the assumptions of the humanistic approach
One of the most important aspects of the humanistic approach is free will. This is the idea that everyone has the power to make their own decisions and be fully autonomous in their actions
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- focus on the self
- counselling psychology
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What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as an assumption of the humanistic approach
- a person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at bottom
- more advanced needs at top
- people motivated to achieve progression through levels
- each level must be fulfilled before moving up
- Maslow believed the most basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore
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What is the hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach
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What is self actualisation in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach
- occurs when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves
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What did Maslow suggest about self actualisation
- found that most of those who attained self actualisation shared certain characteristics
- tended to be creative, accepting of other peple and had an accurate perception of the world around them
- believe that such individuals experienced self actualisation in the form of peak experiences
- these are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions
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What is focus on the self as an assumption of the humanistic approach and evaluate it
- Rogers (1951) claimed people have two basic needs
=> positive regard from other people
=> feelings of self worth
Research support- harter et al discovered that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves thus imposing low conditions of work on themselves so lower self esteem..
Unstable concept- concepts such as self actualisation may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditosn.
Practical application through therapy.
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Explain the basic need of feelings of self worth in the humanistic approach
- develop in childhood from interactions with parents
- further interactions with significant others in adulthood also have an influence
- when there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self and ideal self, a state of congruence exists
- however a difference results in a state of incongruence
- the closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self worth
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Explain the state of congruence in the humanistic approach
- it is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist
=> most people experience some degree of incongruence
- however, most people see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self
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Explain the basic need of positive regard in the humanistic approach
- positive regard given by others may be unconditional when a person is accepted for who they are or conditional
- when people experience conditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth
=> conditions which they believe have to be met to be accepted by others
- an individual will only experience a sense of self acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance
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What is counselling psychology as an assumption of the humanistic approach
- Rogers (1959) claimed an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people
- he believed that with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways and move towards being a more functioning person
- instead of acting in a direct way, humanist psychologists regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self actualisation
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What is the role of therapist in counselling psychology in the humanistic approach
- provide unconditional positive regard, expressing acceptance and understanding
- therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth
- result in the client moving towards being more true to their self
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What is a positive evaluation point of the humanistic approach
- free will
- humanists believe in free will
- however, science believes all behaviour is caused by something
- determinism in science allows for general laws and predictability of behaviour, and so there is limited application of the humanistic approach
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What are negative evaluation points of the humanistic approach
- scientific
- operationalisation
- culture bias
- unrealistic
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How is scientific a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach
- humanistic psychology lacks scientific rigour
- proposes we should study the whole person as each individual is unique
- however science relies on reductionism
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How is operationalisation a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach
- humanists propose concepts such as self actualisation where definitions lack operationalisation
- there is no objective measure of whether someone has self actualised, leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims
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How is culture bias a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach
- many ideas central to humanistic psychology, such as personal growth, are much more readily associated with individualist cultures
- collectivist cultures which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology
- therefore it is possible that this approach is the product of the cultural context within which it was developed
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How is unrealistic a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach
- some critics argue that the humanistic approach presents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature
- people are not as inherently good or growth orientated as this approach suggests
- in fact this approach ignores people’s capacity for pessimism and self destruction
195
Compare the approaches in terms of free will and determinism
- biological => biologically determinist => behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors, e.g. genes and neurochemistry
- behaviourist => environmental determinism => behaviour is controlled by stimulus response association
- SLT => soft determinism => behaviour is influenced by environmental forces but humans have some free will
- cognitive => soft determinism => behaviour can be controlled by schemas etc. but individuals choose what information they attend to
- psychodynamic => psychic determinism => behaviour is determined by unconscious instincts and drives
- humanist => free will => humans control their own behaviour
196
Compare the approaches in terms of nature and nurture
- biological => nature => behaviour is the result of innate biological factors, e.g. genes
- behaviourist => nurture => humans are born as a blank slate so all behaviour is learnt
- SLT => nurture => behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of models
- cognitive => both => behaviour is product of information processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture)
- psychodynamic => both => behaviour is the product of innate drives (nature) as well as childhood experiences (nurture)
- humanist => nurture => behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self actualisation
197
Compare the approaches in terms of reductionism and holism
- biological => biological reductionism => behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes
- behaviourist => environmental reductionism => behaviour is broke down into stimulus response association
- SLT => holistic => takes into account both behavioural and cognitive factors in behaviour
- cognitive => holistic => but also accused of machine reductionism by comparing the human mind to a computer
- psychodynamic => holistic => proposes that personality is the dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood experiences
- humanist => holistic => focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience
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Compare the approaches in terms of idiographic and nomothetic
- biological => nomothetic => creates universal laws, as humans share similar psychology
- behaviourist => nomothetic => creates universal laws as people learn through either association or consequence
- SLT => nomothetic => attempts to establish general laws, e.g. vicarious reinforcement
- cognitive => both => attempts to establish general laws (e.g. through theoretical models) but also utilises case studies (e.g. HM and KF)
- psychodynamic => both => attempts to establish general laws (e.g. psychosexual stages) but also utilises case studies and considers unique childhood experiences
- humanist => idiographic => focuses on the subjective human experience
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Compare the approaches in terms of scientific
- biological => scientific => promotes scientific methods, e.g. brain scanning and uses animal research
- behaviourist => scientific => utilises scientific methods, e.g. lab experiments and uses animal research
- SLT => mostly scientific => utilises scientific methods but also considers subjective mediational processes
- cognitive => mostly scientific => utilises scientific methods (e.g. lab experiments) but also researches concepts not directly observable (e.g. cognitive errors)
- psychodynamic => not scientific => examines concepts that cannot be empirically trusted (e.g. repressed memories) and relies on subjective interpretations of case studies
- humanistic => not scientific => rejects scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence
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Compare the approaches in terms of application
- biological => drug treatments, e.g. SSRIs for depression
- behaviourist => token economy, SD, flooding
- SLT => age ratings on films and games
- cognitive => CTB, REBT, anger management
- psychodynamic => psychotherapy
- humanist => counselling
201
What are different factors the approaches can be compared against
- free will vs determinism
- nature vs nurture
- reductionism vs holism
- idiographic vs nomothetic
- scientific
- applications
202
What is the humanistic approach?
One of the most important aspects of the humanistic approach is free will. This is the idea that everyone has the power to make their own decisions and be fully autonomous in their actions
