1
Q
What are the two neural mechanisms in aggression
A
1) Limbic system
2) the role of serotonin
2
Q
A01
Explain the limbic system as a neural mechanism in aggression
A
- links to the brain specifically the amygdala
- key structures of the limbic system: hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus
- most important: amygdala
- has a key role in human and non human animals in how they respond to environmental threats and challenges
- reactivity of the amygdala in humans is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour
3
Q
A01
Explain the A01 research by Gospic et al on the limbic system as a neural explanation for aggression
A
- proposed the Ultimatum game
- 2 players asked to divide a given amount of money, confederate decides how money is split, responder accept/rejects offer, if they reject neither of them get any money
- researchers found that when when ppts rejected an unfair reward (seen as social provocation) fast and heightened response in the amygdala was recorded, implicating this region of this brain as involved in aggression
- when a benzodiazepine drug was taken (calm down) there were 2 effects on responses to unfair offers:
1) halved the number of rejections (reduced aggression)
2) decreased activity in the amygdala
4
Q
A03
What is a weakness of Gospic’s research on the amygdala associated with aggression
A
Lab experiment, low ecological validity, aggression may not be displayed in the same ways in real world
- MRI could have confounded the results, ppts brain scans may have been influenced by the unfamiliar situation they are in (low validity)
- researchers equate the perception of unfairness as an operationalised definition of aggression, however are they really the same?
5
Q
A01
Explain the role of serotonin as neural mechanism in aggression
A
- inhibitory neurotransmitter (reduces post synaptic membrane activity)
- ‘normal’ levels in the orbitofrontal cortex are linked to reduced firing of neuron’s, associated with a greater degree of behaviour control (self control)
- decreased levels reduce self control leading to an increase in impulsive behaviour such as aggression
6
Q
A01
Explain research from Virkkunen et al on the role of serotonin in aggression
A
- compared levels of a serotonin breakdown product (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid of violent impulsive and non impulsive offenders
- the levels were significantly lower in the impulsive offenders (means their serotonin levels were lower)
- they suffered more from sleep irregularities (serotonin regulates sleep patterns), disturbance of this pattern implies a disruption of serotonin functioning, further supporting the role of serotonin in reactive aggression
7
Q
A01
What is the hormonal explanation for agression
A
Testosterone
8
Q
A01
Explain testosterone as a hormonal explanation for aggression
A
- male sex hormone and androgen responsible for the development of masculine features
- also has a role of regulating social behaviours via it’s influence on certain areas in the brain implicated in aggression
- high levels of testosterone = aggression
9
Q
A01
Explain research by Dolan at al on testosterone as an hormonal explanation of aggression
A
- found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours
- sample of 60 males (high security prison) who suffered from personality disorders and had history of impulsive violent behaviour
10
Q
A03
What is a weakness of neural explanations of aggression
A
1) reductionist, specifically the limbic system and role of the amygdala ignores other brain structures
- e.g recent studies suggest the amygdala appears to function in the tandem with the OFC (not part of the limbic system)
- OFC (orbitofrontal cortex) is involved in self control and impulsive regulation linked to aggressive behaviour
- Cocarro et al found that patients with psychiatric disorders that feature aggression, activity in OFC is reduced
- therefore explanation is limited and reduced to only one structure where aggression is far more complex
11
Q
A03
What are strengths of the neural explanation of aggression
A
1) research support that increased levels of the serotonin reduces aggressive behaviour
- e.g Berman et al found that ppts who were given paroxetine (drug that enhances serotonin activity) they behaved less aggressively compared to a control group whilst playing a video game, delivering fewer and less intense shocks
2) research is correlation, avoiding ethical implications e.g while looking into activity of the amygdala no harm is done to the ppts by possibly damaging the amygdala to discover cause and effect, instead just a Fmri scan
HOWEVER, findings are still inconclusive, we can only see a link between two variables e.g increased amygdala activity and aggressive behaviours, but unclear which variable causes the other, there may be a third variable involved
12
Q
A03
What is a weakness of hormonal explanations (testosterone) of aggression
A
1) reductionist (limited), there may be other hormones such as the stress hormone cortisol that has an influence on aggressive behaviours
- research has found that when cortisol levels were high, this actually blocks testosterone influences. (Antagonist effect)
- the ‘dual- hormone hypothesis’ supports this, combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of human aggression than either hormone alone
13
Q
A01
Explains twins as a genetic factor in aggression
A
- twin studies
- suggest concordance rate for aggression is 50% (DZ twins)
- Coccaro at al collected data from 182 MZ twins, 118 DZ twins and found the concordance rate for physical assault was 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZ twins
- suggest a genetic component as likelihood id higher for MZ twins
14
Q
A01
Explain adoption studies as a genetic factor in aggression
A
- attempts to detangle gene/environment interaction
- if we a greater similarity is found between children and their biological parents (rather than between children and their adapted parents) then the role of genetics can be assumed to be a significant factor in determining behaviour
- Rhee and Waldman carried out meta analysis of adoption studies, direct aggression and antisocial behaviour
- found genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression
- supports biological explanation for aggression
15
Q
A01
Explain the MAOA gene as a genetic factor for aggression
A
- MAOA gene codes for the enzyme called monoamine oxidase which regulates the neurotransmitter serotonin
- role is to ‘mop up neurotransmitters’ in the brain after nerve impulse has been transmitted from one neuron to another
- does this by breaking down neurotransmitter especially serotonin into smaller parts to be recycled or excreted (process called catabolism)
- production of MAOA enzyme is determined by the MAOA gene
- dysfunction in this gene may lead to abnormal activity of the enzyme, effecting their serotonin levels in brain where low levels are linked to aggression
16
Q
A03
What are strengths of genetic explanations for aggression
A
1) Bruner- studied 28 male members of a large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive violent criminal behaviours such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault
- these men had abnormally low levels of MAOA in their brains and the lower-activity version of the MAOA gene
2) Stuart et al- studied 97 men from a treatment programme for domestic abusers, who had inflicted a form of aggression called intimate partner violence
- men with the low activity MAOA gene were found to be the most violent perpetrators of intimate partner violence, engaged in greatest psychological and physical aggression and inflicted the worst injuries on their partners
17
Q
A01
Explain gene environment interaction as a factor of aggression
A
- low MAOA gene activity linked to aggression only when combined with early trauma
- Frazetto found an association between antisocial aggression and the low activity MAOA gene variant in adult males but only in those who experienced significant trauma (e.g sexual or physical abuse) during the first 15 years of life
- those who hasn’t experienced such trauma were not especially aggressive as adults even if possessed the low activity MAOA gene variant
- therefore the gene doesn’t function in isolation
18
Q
A01
What are the 4 factors in genetic explanations of aggression
A
1) twin studies
2) adoption studies
3) the MAOA gene
4) gene environment interaction
19
Q
A03
What is a weakness of genetic explanations for aggression
A
1) reductionist argument, appears they may be more than one gene linked to aggressive behaviour
- Stuart et al studied males involved in IPV (intimate partner violence) and found that the aggression was not linked to low activity MAOA gene variant, but also the 5HHT serotonin gene, therefore genetic explanation may be more complex than we think
20
Q
A01
What does the ethnological explanation of aggression suggest
A
- the main function of aggression is adaptive as it aids survival e.g anger, hunger, threat and mate competition
- ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural settings
21
Q
A01
What are the two main adaptive functions of aggression in animal species
A
1) allows a species to survive as a ‘defeated’ animal is forced to establish territory elsewhere, members of species have to spread over a wider area and discover resources in a different places reducing competition pressure
2) to establish dominance in hierarchies,
- aggression would be naturally selected as it increases reproductive fitness
- male chimpanzees use aggression to climb their troop’s social hierarchy, their dominance gives them special status
22
Q
A01
What is meant by ritualistic aggression
A
- most aggressive encounters consist of ritualistic signals ( threat displays and appeasement gestures)
- adaptive bc if every aggressive encounter ended with death it could threaten the existence of species
23
Q
A01
What is meant by threat displays as part of ritualistic aggression and give examples
A
- intend to make an opponent back down + are there last step before an animal either fights or submits and leaves (shows appeasement)
E.g - vocalisations
- hooting sounds
- pounding chest
24
Q
A01
What is meant by appeasement gestures
A
- submission, signalling backing down to a threat display
25
A01
Explain the innate releasing mechanism (IRM) as part of the process of aggression
- physiological process within a species
- network of neurons in the brain which responds to threats in the form of aggression
- environmental stimulus e.g facial expressions, bearing teeth triggers IRM which ‘releases’ a specific sequence of behaviours
- this behavioural sequence is called a fixed action pattern (FAP)
26
A01
What are the 6 features that the FAP can be characterised as
- Lea suggested 6 main features
1) stereotyped: unchanging sequence
2) universal: same behaviour found in every species
3) unaffected by learning (innate): same regardless of experience
4) ballistic: once behaviour triggered, follows inevitable course
5) single purpose: occurs in specific situation and no other
6) responsive: response to a specific stimulus from member of same species
27
A01
Explain research into FAP and IRM’s (stickleback fish)
- during mating season sticklebacks are highly territorial and aggressive (develop a red spot on their underbellies due to mating season)
- if another male enters territory, sequence of highly aggressive behaviours are shown (FAP)
- the stimulus that triggers the IRM is the sight of red spot
- Timbergen found that regardless of shape of wooden model, if it had a red spot the stickleback back would aggressively behave and attack it
28
A03
What is are weaknesses of ethological explanations
1) not entirely generalisable/extrapolate findings: Lorenz and Tinbergen assumed the behaviour they observed in birds and fish must also be typical of humans
- should be cautious about making such generalisations, especially to a behaviour (such as warfare) which is extremely complex and outcome may vary due to personality factors and power/authority
2) are FAP’s
29
A03
What are weaknesses of ethnological explanations for aggression
1) not entirely generalisable/extrapolate findings: Lorenz and Tinbergen assumed the behaviour they observed in birds and fish must also be typical of humans
- should be cautious about making such generalisations, especially to a behaviour (such as warfare) which is extremely complex and outcome may vary due to personality factors and power/authority
2) are FAP’s really that fixed/changing- aggression/behaviours may actually have more of an environmental influence than was first suggested
- ethologists increasingly accept that FAP’s are flexible and the term itself is used less than it once was, replaced by MAPS (modal action patterns), now been found the duration of each ‘aggressive behaviours’ varies from one individual to another
- small differences between members of same species, not as fixed as Lorenz suggested
30
A01
How does sexual jealousy differ from males and females
-Females: need a father who will invest resources, time and care, fear he will spend these resources on someone else. Desire certain traits to be passed down onto offspring
-Males: fear social infidelity, sexual jealousy is stronger in males due to paternity uncertainty, which may lead to cuckoldry, raising a child who is not his own
31
A01
What have males developed as an adaptive response for sexual jealousy
- males have developed male retentive strategies to minimise risk of infidelity and avoid cuckoldry
1) direct guarding: insisting on knowing where partner is
2) negative inducements: making threats of suicide + physical threats
3) Uxoricide: extreme cases where they kill the wife
32
A01
What did Shackleford find about uxoricide and how it counteracts the evolutionary perspective
- looked at 13,670 cases of uxoricide and found young women were most at risk
- defies evolutionary perspective as killing when women is still reproductive and can carry genes
- by killing wife he prevents a competitor from reproducing
33
A03
What is are strengths of evolutionary explanations for aggression (sexual jealousy)
1) Research support: studies of abused women found primary cause was extreme jealousy from husband
- Wilson interviewed women and those who agreed their partner was ‘jealous and doesn’t want you to talk to other men’ were twice as likely to experience serious violence
- supports adaptive trait to ensure partners fidelity
- motivated by cuckoldry and wasting time and resources
2) sexual coercion: Camilleri found sexual assault of a female was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity, victims of rape were more likely to have engaged in cheating
- rape increases chance of impregnating
- real world application of sexual violence/ rape, explains sexual jealousy as a motivating factor
34
A03
What is a weakness of research for sexual jealousy as an evolutionary explanation for aggression
1) methodological issues: studies are correlational meaning there is only a correlation for aggression and male retentive strategies
- research may suffer from the ‘third factor problem’ where a third contributor may be present but not studied yet
- therefore doesn’t demonstrate cause and effect
35
A01
What are the two evolutionary explanations for aggression
1) sexual jealously
2) bullying/verbal aggression
36
A01
Explain bullying/verbal aggression as an evolutionary explanation of aggression
- bullying can be seen as an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival and reproduction
- for males, dominance and strength may be attractive for females so would be naturally selected
- for females, bullying is used to control a partner and secure partner’s fidelity, so they can continue to provide resources for future offspring
37
A03
What is a strength of bullying as an evolutionary explanation for aggression
1) explains gender differences- males more likely to engage in physical violence and aggression, females more likely to engage in verbal aggression
- theory accounts aggressive behaviours of both genders and possible reasons for such differences
38
A01
What are the social psychological explanations of aggression
1) frustration aggression hypothesis
2) social learning theory
3) de-individuation
39
A01
Explain the frustration aggression hypothesis as a social psychological explanation for aggression
- Dollard suggested that frustration always leads to aggression, based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis (release)
- aggression occurs when a drive to achieve a goal is obstructed
- suggests frustration is a psychological drive similar to biological drives of hunger and thirst
- however drive may not be satisfied as consequences may be too dangerous and source of frustration may not be present, therefore anger is displaced onto a weaker and immediately available target (displaced aggression)
- unable to reach goals as someone is blocking or in the way
40
A03
What research investigates the frustration aggression hypothesis
1) Green- lab experiment where ppts were asked to complete a jigsaw puzzle under different conditions (1. Puzzle was impossible to complete 2. Unattainable time limit 3. Confederate directing insults at them)
- had to give electric shocks to a confederate when they made a mistake (measure of aggression)
- was found that those who experienced insults gave the highest levels of electric shocks
- supports central prediction that frustration leads to aggression, those being insulted displayed more aggression, increases validity
- however conducted in a lab, artificial setting, lacks ecological validity, unclear if they would carry out same aggression when frustrated irl
41
A01
What did Berkowitz suggest for environmental cues on aggression (reformulation of Dollard’s frustration aggression hypothesis)
- even if we get angry, it doesn’t always result in aggressive behaviour
- instead, frustration just increases a readiness for aggression, but it is the presence of aggressive cues in the environment that make acting upon this much more likely
- e.g presence of a weapon
42
A03
What research supports Berkowitz theory of environmental cues causing aggression
1) ppt in lab was made to be angry (receiving a number of electric shocks from confederate)
- in environment there was either 1) an aggressive cue e.g weapon or 2) passive cue e.g badminton racket
- ppts got chance to shock confederate back
- was found that ppts were likely to exhibit aggression (more shocks) if they had aggressive cues in the environment than if there were passive cues
43
A03
What is a strength of the frustration aggression hypothesis
1) Marcus Newell conducted a meta analysis of 49 studies of ‘displaced’ aggression
- ppts who were provoked but unable to retaliate directly against the ‘source’ of frustration were more likely to behave aggressively against an innocent party than ppl who were not provoked
- concluded that displaced aggression is a reliable phenomenon supporting a central concept of the hypothesis and increasing its validity as an explanation of aggression
- therefore a valid explanation of reactive aggression
44
A03
What is a weakness of the frustration aggression hypothesis
1) Contradictory research
- Bushman found that ppts who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punchbag acc because more angry and aggressive and found that doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting anger
- findings contradict key claim that engaging in aggressive behaviours cause catharsis and ultimately a decrease in aggression
- casts doubt on the validity of hypothesis, can only explain some cases of aggression but not all
- in taking a nomothetic approach, it ignores the influences of individual differences as to whether aggression achieves catharsis
- limited explanation,lacks generalisability and a more idiographic approach may be better
45
A01
What is the evolutionary explanation for bullying
Males:
- bullying is an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction
- Volk et all = characteristics associated with bullying are attractive to the opposite sex e.g dominance and strength
- ensures access to fertile female, reduces threats from males
Females:
- bullying helps to secure their partners fidelity, takes place within relationship
- way to control partner
- means partner continues to provide resources for future offspring
46
A01
Social learning theory in aggression
- observe + imitate others
- aggression is learnt by watching other people behave aggressively, either in person or on films
- uses operant conditioning
- learnt through being rewarded (positive reinforcement) either directly (through own consequences) or indirectly (vicarious reinforcement)
- vicarious reinforcement may encourage a child to think that aggression is a positive behaviour as it leads to someone getting what they want
47
A01
What is meant by vicarious/indirect learning (SLT)
- learning through observing role models engaging in behaviours
- possible role models: parents, siblings, friends
- if models behaviour is rewarded they are more likely to repeat behaviour
- if behaviour is punished less likely to repeat behaviour
48
A01
What is meant by direct learning
- Bandura argued aggression can be directly learnt through operant conditioning
- e.g child hits another child and gets a reward, such as their sweets, then this behaviour is reinforced and is likely to be repeated
49
A01
What are the 4 cognitive conditions (SLT)
Attention- seeing aggressive behaviour
Retention- remembering aggressive behaviour, enables behaviour to be retrieved
Reproduction- must be physically able to reproduce aggressive action
Motivation- must have a reason to copy behaviour, depending on consequence (punishment/reward)
50
A01
Explain Bandura’s key study on aggression in SLT
- children ages 3-5 individually observed an adult model assaulting a Bobo doll
- seen model kicking, punching, throwing etc
- another group who saw an adult interact non-aggressively with the doll
- children were taken to another room where there was a Bobo doll and other toys the model used
- found that children in the ‘aggressive model’ condition imitated the behaviour they observed
- children in the ‘non-aggressive model’ condition showed no aggression
51
A03
Strengths for SLT in aggression
1) Research support, Bandura found 3-5 year olds who observed an adult model behaving aggressively to a bobo doll were more likely to imitate this behaviour when allowed to interact with the doll themselves
- supports idea that children are likely to imitate aggressive behaviours they have observed
- however lacks internal validity as children may have been aware what was expected
- carried out in artificial environment, Bobo doll was designed to be hit, no surprise it was
- can’t be applied to everyday situations of aggression
2) Support from Patterson et al
- demonstrated that role models are important in the development of anti social behaviour (in both boys and girls) and that parents are the most important models
- through surveys and questionnaires they found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little positive feedback
- suggests wider credibility for the importance of role models in forming a child’s behaviour
52
A03
What are weaknesses of SLT in aggression
1) oversimplistic- evidence from Flanagan suggests that testosterone has been cites as a primary cause of aggression and other genetic neurological structures e.g amygdala/ limbic system are involved
- doesn’t stress importance of biological factors and relies on learning and the environment
- e.g those who go onto murder have not always been exposed to aggressive role models
- suggests SLT is reductionist
53
A01
What is meant by deindividuation in aggression
- according to Zimbardo, we act in aggressive ways or antisocial ways because we become difficult to identify
- psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group when in a crowd
- gives them ‘cloak of anonymity’ that diminishes personal consequences
- no personal accountability, responsibility becomes shared with group, meaning aggression is more likely to occur
- behaviours are impulsive, irrational, anti-normative and disinhibited
54
A01
What are the 2 processes of deindividuation as proposed by Roger’s
1) private self awareness- how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour
- redacted when we are part of a crowd, our attention becomes focused outwardly to events surrounding us, pay less attention to our own beliefs and feelings
2) public self awareness- how much we care about what other ppl think of our behaviour, also reduced in crowds
- realise we are anonymous + our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others
- no longer care how others see us, become less accountable,e for our aggressive actions
55
A03
What is a strength of deindividuation (anonymity)
1) real life application- Douglas and McGarty opposed ay aggressive online behaviour in chat rooms
- they found a strong correlation between anonymity and hostile messages
- the most aggressive messages were sent by those who hid their identities
- in line with deindividuation as there is a link between anonymity, deindividuation and aggressive behaviour in a context that has even greater relevance today
56
A03
What are weaknesses of deindividuation
1) contradictory research- Gergen et al put strangers in a darkened room and told them to do what they wanted
- they soon started kissing + touching each other
- this ‘deviance in the dark’ study was repeated with ppl told they would be face to face with each other afterwards- touching and kissing was reduced
- despite a guarantee of anonymity creating the conditions for deindividuation, aggressive behaviour was not an outcome of this study
- therefore anonymity doesn’t always lead to aggressive behaviour
2) too much emphasis on group dynamics affecting group as a whole, rather than changes an individual can make to decrease their feelings of self awareness- Johnson + Downing found that ppts who were dressed in a KKK uniform were significantly more aggressive and delivered higher intensity shocks to confederates compared to those dressed as nurses
- suggests that the social roles associated with uniforms are emphasised and not lost in a group setting
57
A01
What is meant by institutional aggression
- an institution is any large organisation/place where the same ppl work, play, eat, and recreate together on a continuous basis
- so institutional aggression is when aggressive or violent behaviour takes place within this social context
58
A01
What are the two explanations for institutional aggression
1) Importation model
2) Deprivation model
59
A01
Explain the importation model of institutional aggression
- dispositional explanation by Irwin and Cressey
- behaviour of inmates is due to them bringing their own social histories with them e.g drug addiction
- they aren’t black slates, they ‘import’ ready made ways of behaving, especially those who are in a gang
- experiences include trauma, drug addiction, gang feuds
- bring in a ‘subculture of criminality’
- use aggression to establish dominance and access resources
60
A01
Research into the importation model
- Matt DeLisi
- studied 813 juvenile delinquents confined in institutions in California
- brought into confinement several negative dispositional features e.g childhood trauma, high levels of anger and irritability, history of substance abuse and violent behaviour
- inmates with these dispositional features were more likely to engage in more acts of physical violence compared to a control group of inmates with fewer negative dispositional features
A02: can apply to token economics
- create interventions
- therapy
61
A01
Explain the deprivation model of institutional aggression
- developed by Syke
- focuses on the deprivation experienced by the inmates with often leads to aggressive behaviour
- situational explanation- harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates, who have to cope by resorting to violence
- types of deprivation:
1) deprivation of freedom- civil rights are lost as inmates need permission to do everyday things such as eat and wash, prison regimes often unpredictable, creates frustration
2) deprivation of goods + services- deprived of many goods and commodities that they would expect to, increases competitor between inmates to acquire them + linked to higher levels of aggression
62
A03
What’s a strength of the deprivation model explanation of institutional aggression
1) research support
Cunningham et al analysed 35 inmate homocides in Texas prisons and found that motivations for these behaviours were linked to deprivations identified by Sykes
- particularly arguments over drugs, homosexual relationships and personal possessions
- all factors predicted by the model to make aggression more likely, these findings support its validity of this explanation
2) Johnston also found that prison overcrowding leads to increased aggression
- meaning there is greater competition for resources available
- competition elicits aggression and violence
- formation of gangs to help compete for resources
- all situational factors and therefore support the deprivation model of aggression in prisons
63
A03
Limitation of the deprivation model
1) research contradict
- Hensley et al studied 256 male and female inmates of 2 prisons in Mississippi (allows conjugal visits) and found there was no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour
- if the model was correct, lack of freedom and heterosexual contact should lead to high levels of aggressive behaviours, however findings show the opposite
- perhaps institutional explanations have overestimated the influence of situational factors on institutional aggression and therefore offers an inaccurate explanation
- perhaps a combination of both models may be a better explanation
64
A03
What is a limitation of both the deprivation and importation models
1) Interactionist approaching may be better
- Dobbs and Waid argue that deprivation doesn’t lead to violence unless it combines with the individual characteristics imported into the prison by inmates
- more valid explanation because it explains the evidence and inmates experiences of institutional aggression
- offers fuller account as it explains greater variety of aggressive behaviours
- more realistic, reflects complex nature of institutional aggression
65
A01
Effects of computer games- experimental studies
1) Bartholow and Anderson
- got students to play either a violent computer game (mortal kombat) or a nonviolent game (PGA tournament golf) for 10 mins
- they all carried out the Taylor Competitive Time Task, a standard lab measure of aggression in which the students delivered blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish a non-existent opponent
- those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels compared with the non violent players
66
A03
Effects of computer games- strengths and weaknesses of experimental studies
+ can see a causal link between aggression and media aggression
+ no manipulation (more realistic)
- measures of aggression are artificial (Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task) measures aggression by volume of noise, unrealistic form of aggression in real world
- doesn’t involve retaliation, experimenter gives ppts to be ‘safely’ be aggressive
- casts doubt on validity as may not have been the same if retaliation was involved
- demand characteristics, may guess more violent game is for violent behaviour
- confounding variables, may be bc the game caused frustration as it was harder, not because it was aggressive
67
A01
Effects of computer games- correlational study
1) DeLisi studied 227 juvenile offenders
- all had history of serious aggressive behaviours e.g gang fighting, hitting teachers/parents
- using structured interviews, researchers gathered info on several measures of aggression and violent computer games playing
- found that offenders’ aggressive behaviours was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them
- researchers concluded that computer game violence was a significant risk factor in aggressive behaviour
68
A03
Strengths and weaknesses of correlational study- effects of computer games
+ allows us to investigate realistic forms of aggression that would’ve been too unethical to manipulate
- cannot conclude cause and effect, could be explained by other variables that have not been considered, e.g upbringing, socialisation, exposure to aggressive role models
69
A01
Effects of computer games- longitudinal studies
1) Robertson wanted to see if there was a link between ‘excessive’ computer game playing and aggressive behaviour in adulthood
- studied 1037 ppl born in New Zealand in 1972+1973 measured their game playing hours at regular intervals up to the age of 26 years
- found that the time spent playing computer games wad a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood, measured in terms of actual convictions for aggressive and violent crimes
- those who played games were also more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and to have aggressive personality traits
70
A03
Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal study- effects of computer games
+ more realistic, can see the impacts over time
- no control over confounding variables, can’t accurately conclude that media has caused this
- real life factors may have interfered
71
A01
Effects of computer games- meta analyses
- Anderson performed a meta analysis of 136 studied which included all three types of methodology (experimental, correlation, longitudinal)
- exposure to violent computer games was associated with increase in aggressive behaviours, thoughts + feelings
- this applied to both males and females females across collectivist and individualist cultures
- claims there is a profound link between violent game playing and aggressive behaviours
72
A03
Strengths and weaknesses- meta analysis
+ able to look at range of studies
+ bigger picture of effects of comp games
- secondary data
- methodological issues- different variables controlled
- publication bias- do we know the true effects?
73
A03
What’s a strength of effects of computer games (establish cause and effect)
1) using lab experiments allow us to establish cause and effect
- e.g in Anderson + Dill’s study, by having high control over variables, it allows them to be more certain that the manipulation of the independent variable (playing violent video games or not) has had an effect on dependant behaviour (aggressive behaviour)
- increases validity that violent games cause an increase in aggressive behaviour r
- however can be criticised for being unrealistic since conducted in a lab, so lack ecological validity and tasks lack mundane realism
2) Correlational studies allow us to look at realistic forms of aggression
- e.g its unethical to encourage behaviours, correlational research allows us to look at behaviours without any manipulation
74
75
A01
What are the 3 explanations for media influences on aggression
1) desensitisation
2) disinhibition
3) cognitive priming
76
A01
Explain desensitisation as an explanation for media influences
- desensitisation is a physiological process: the sympathetic nervous system is triggered when in presence of violence or aggression (increased heart rate, adrenaline surge) leading to fight or flight
- if someone is exposed to a lot of violence, they will over time become ‘desensitised’ to the effects of this violence, likely to experience decrease emotional responses, has less impact (due to habituation)
- someone who is desensitised to violence is less likely to view violence and aggression as bad/harmful/toxic and they may feel little or no sympathy for victims of violence
77
A01
What research investigates desensitisation (Earl and Weisz)
- lab study
- men were showed a film ‘straw dog’ which contains a prolonged + graphic rape scene
- control group (non violent film)
- all ppts watched a ‘re enactment of a rape trial’ and asked to rate the defendant guilty or not guilty
- male viewers showed greater acceptance of rape (she deserved it, she was asking for it) an sexual aggression
- also expressed less sympathy towards the rape victim on trial
- less likely to find defendant guilty
- film type- didn’t have same effect on women
- overall supports effects of desensitisation, more pronounced for males compared to females
78
A01
Explain disinhibition as an explanation for media influences
- consumption of mass media many have a disinhibiting effect
- when someone is exposed to a lot of media led aggression, they begin to view the world using a modified set of social norms
- acceptability of hardening others is formed through the media, when in virtual world, a disinhibited person will act in a non typical way, less socially acceptable
- suggests exposure to media aggression may incite violence in someone who is a passive person in everyday behaviour
- exposure to violent media ‘legitimises use of violence’ in real life because it ‘undermines the social sanctions’ that usually inhibit such behaviour
79
A01
Explain cognitive priming as an explanation of media influences on aggression
- cognitive: thoughts/processing/memory
- priming: increase in accessibility of thoughts + ideas
- constant explore to violence on social media activates thoughts or ideas about violence, which in turn activate other aggressive thoughts in our memory/neural pathways
- provides us with a ‘script’ about how violent behaviours may play out which is stored in our memory
- results in us becoming primed to be aggressive when we encounter aggressive cues
- may learn a variety of different aggressive ways to respond to situations through computer games and scripts guide behaviour irl
- according to Rowell Huesmann, this script is stored in memory and so we become ready or primed to be aggressive in the real world
80
A03
What is a strength of desensitisation as an explanation for media influences on aggression
1) research support, Carnagey found that ppts who had played a ‘violent game’ immediately before watching a clip of real life violence had lower heart rates in comparison to the control group who didn’t play a violent game
- support central prediction that there is lowered physiological response/stress rate after playing violent games
- leads us to being unphased to aggressive behaviours
- arguably witnessing real life aggressive behaviour may lead to a different reaction, e.g increase in anxiety
81
A03
What is a strength of cognitive priming as an explanation for media influences on aggression
1) Research support
- Murray used FMRI to compare brain areas active when a sample of 8 children watched both violent and non-violent programmes
- in both cases an area which processes visual motion was active (as expected)
- however when watching violence, part of the right hemisphere was activated which regulates emotion, arousal and attention as well as areas responsible for storing episodic memories implying violence is stored as scripts for later use
82
A03
What are strengths of disinhibition as an explanation of media influences on aggression
1) Berkowitz + Alioto foun that ppts who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) eclectic shocks of longer duration to a confederate
- suggests that media violence may lead to aggressive behaviour when it’s presented justified
- supports disinhibition as it shows the link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour
- adds validity
2) Goranson showed ppl a film of a boxing match where there were 2 alternative endings
- in one ending there were no apparent consequences, but in the second ending, the loser of the fight was seen to take a bad beating and he ended up dying
- ppts who did not see the negative consequences were more likely to behave aggressively after viewing the fight than those who did see the consequences
- suggests that disinhibition is more likely to occur in situations where there are no consequences of violent behaviour
83
A03
What is practical application of media influences on aggression
- as there is strong evidence to suggest that exposure to violent + aggressive media increases aggression
- it’s important that important children and adults are aware of the negative
- parents should limit the exposure to such media influences and governments should ensure that all games/films that depict violence and normalise violence are certificated and age appropriate
Psychology
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