1
Q
what is introspection?
A
- ppts trained to report conscious experiences objectively, asked to focus on sensory object, asking to systematically report their experience by breaking thoughts into separate elements
- Wundt developed general theories of mental processes based on data collected
- structuralism (breaking down mental processes into their most basic components)
2
Q
what are the 3 thing required for an experiment to be scientific?
A
1) systematic- carried out in an orderly way
2) replicable- can be repeated by other researchers
3) empirical methods
3
Q
what are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- everyone is born as a ‘blank slate’
- as a learning theory, argues that behaviour is learned through experiences and interactions with environment
- learnt through conditioning (operant and classical)
4
Q
what is classical conditioning
A
- learning a new behaviour via the process of association
- two stimuli are linked to produce a new learned response in a person or animal
- neutral stimulus is substituted for the original unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
- UCS produces UCR
- UCS is paired with NS
- after repeated pairing NS elicits the UCR, which becomes the CR
- NS must be paired with UCS again otherwise extinction will occur
5
Q
what are the main components in classical conditioning
A
1) UCS (unconditioned stimulus)
2) UCR (unconditioned response)
3) NS (neutral stimulus)
4) CS (conditioned stimulus) - been learned
5) CR (conditioned response)
6
Q
What did Pavlov do? (classical conditioning)
A
- taught a dog to associate the ring of a bell with its food, therefore salivates
- NS: sound of bell
- UCS: food
- UCR: salivate
- paired the NS with UCS to produce CR of salivation
- NS became CS
7
Q
what are the 4 variables in classical conditioning
A
1) timing- if time between NS and UCS is too great, conditioning can’t take place
2) extinction- CR doesn’t become permantely established as a response
3) spontaneous recovery- if the CS and UCS are paired together again the link between them is made more quickly
4) stimulus generalisation - once an animal has been conditioned, they will respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
8
Q
what is operant conditioning
A
- states that learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment
- repeated behaviour is due to the nature of the consequences
9
Q
What did Skinner do?
A
- Skinners box
- conditioned a rat to press a leaver in order to get food
- positive reinforcement when pulled leaver, got food
- negative reinforcement, repeated behaviour to avoid electric shock
10
Q
what is positive reinforcement
A
when a behaviour produces a pleasant consequence, most likely to be repeated
11
Q
what is negative reinforcement
A
- when a behaviour removes something unpleasant
- doing smt to avoid an unpleasant response
-most likely to be repeated
12
Q
what is positive punishment
A
-behaviour is followed by unpleasant response
- punishment is added to the situation
-less likely to be repeated
13
Q
what is negative punishment
A
- behaviour followed by unpleasant consequence
- taking away something pleasant
- less likely to be repeated
14
Q
what are the strengths of classical and operant conditioning as an explanation for behaviour - behaviourist approach
A
1) token economy systems have been successfully used in prisons which reward good behaviour (operant), CC led to development of treatments for phobias. In clinical practices patients learn to associate their feared stimulus with relaxation which reduces anxiety ( flooding and systematic desensitisation) , can be used to better lives of ppl in society and improve environment in institutions, highlights psychological value
- good application to the maintenance of phobias, avoidance behaviour repeated
2) Little Albert case study, Watson was able to condition an 11 month baby to fear a white rat by associating it with a loud bang noise. Also supports stimulus generalisation as Little Albert was scared of anything with fur afterwards
3) Experiments used well-controlled research, in controlled lab settings, behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility, replicable procedures, testable hypothesis
HOWEVER - use of animal studies, can’t extrapolate findings to humans, complex social and cultural forces influence human behaviour, humans have greater intelligence
- suffers anthropomorphism, cant tell us much about human behaviours
15
Q
what is the assumption of the social learning theory (SLT)
A
Agrees with behaviourist approach that behaviour is learnt through experience, however proposed that learning takes place through cognitive processes that happen between stimulus and response
- learning takes place through observing and imitating of role models
16
Q
define the term imitation
A
when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it
17
Q
define the term identification (SLT)
A
- extent to which a person views themselves as being similar to the role model.
- more likely to imitate the behaviour of people whom they identify with
18
Q
define the term modelling (SLT)
A
- someone is influential in some way, referred to as a model
- if individual imitates their behaviour its called modelling the behaviour
19
Q
define the term vicarious reinforcement
A
- the reinforcement the observer sees the model receiving and decides whether to imitate behaviour or not
- individual learns by observing the models behaviour and deciding whether to repeat it
- e.g if we see someone rewarded for behaviour we are more likely to imitate it
- observed reward gained and is motivated to behave similarly
- indirect
20
Q
define the term role of mediational processes
A
- there is some thought when observing the behaviour of a model and imitating it
21
Q
what are the 4 mediational processes (SLT) and describe them
A
1) attention - for behaviour to be imitated it has to grab our attention
2) retention - have to remember the action to imitate it (requires rehearsal)
3) reproduction - having the physical ability to repeat action
4) motivation - if rewards outweigh costs, we are most likely to imitate it
22
Q
what experiment did Bandura propose?
A
- 36 boys, 36 girls
- bobo doll demonstrating observational learning
- 3 conditions:
1) model was rewarded for being aggressive to bobo doll
2) model was punished for being aggressive to bobo doll
3) no response when hitting doll - those who observed model being rewarded, repeated aggressive behaviours
- when model was punished, they didn’t show aggressive behaviour
- supports SLT, shows they learnt through vicarious reinforcement, by observing model
23
Q
what is a strength of the social learning theory
A
1) emphasises the importance of cognitive factors, humans make judgements on appropriate behaviour, provides a more complete explanation of human learning by recognising mediational processes, classical and operant conditioning omit any cognitive factors involved, therefore less reductionist than behaviourism
2) good application to the use of token economies in prison or health settings
- the prisoner or patient is rewarded for ‘good’ behaviour with tokens, observation of fellow prisoners/patients encourages good behaviour from others, so good external validity
24
Q
weakness of the social learning theory
A
1) ignores biological differences between boys and girls- Bandura’s study showed there was a higher number of boys who were aggressive compared to girls, so may not be generalisable to both genders, biological factors could have an influence on behaviour, may be due to boys having higher levels of testosterone
2) relies on inferences, processes such as vicarious reinforcement are not directly observable but are inferred from a behaviour
3) lacks mundane realism, doesn’t reflect how children would be aggressive in day to day situations, ppts may have acted more aggressively to please the experimenter ‘please U effect’ reducing generalisability
4) Cannot explain all behaviour, some are observed frequently and are not imitated e.g a child who frequently observes domestic violence may never be violent towards anyone else
- means it can only offer a limited explanation of behaviour, doesn’t acknowledge role of individual differences
25
what are the assumptions of the biological approach
- all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin, the mind ‘lives within the brain’ not separate as the cognitive approach suggests
- actions of genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood to explain behaviour fully
- biological structures (endocrine system) e.g adrenal gland releasing adrenaline, increasing altertness for fight or flight
- localisation, frontal lobe has been linked to decision making
26
what are MZ and DZ twins?
MZ: completely identical, 100% same genes (shared placenta)
DZ: non-identical genes, share 50% of genes (separate placenta)
27
why are twin studies important?
they are used to determine if traits are environmental or genetic
28
define the term concordance rate
-the likelihood that if one twin has a certain trait the other twin will have it as well
- e.g in depression concordance rate is 46% for MZ twins and 20% for DZ twins
29
define the term genotype
- persons individual makeup which provides the genetic code for how the indivual should develop and their characteristics
- particular set of genes that make up DNA
- combination of alleles
- dictates physical characteristics such as eye and hair colour
30
define the term phenotype
- product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment
- the way our genes are expressed
- individuals observable traits e.g hair texture, height
- environmental factors like nutrition or exposure to pollutants can influence a persons phenotype, e.g a persons genotype may dictate a particular height for an indivual however environmental influences such as poor nutrition may not provide the required nutrients to reach this, so may not be their genetic potential as the genotype dictates
- person genotype may predispose them to specific behaviours e.g criminality but if specific environmental factors are not in place then this aspect of genotype may never be expressed in their phenotype
31
what are neurotransmitters
chemical messengers in our brain
32
what are hormones
chemicals which travel through the blood. Produced in the glands and control characteristics such as growth
33
what can an imbalance in neurotransmitters lead to
mental illnesses and therefore can change a persons behaviour
34
what are the strengths of the biological approach
1) real world application, research into neurochemicals led to drugs to correct chemical imbalances such as low levels of serotonin leading to depression, therefore can treat mental disorders, and to treat OCD e.g SSRIs reducing serotonin uptake. Main advantage of drug treatment,ents compared to cognitive theories such as CBT is that they require minimal effort on the part of the patient, they are non-invasive and not time consuming unlike cognitive therapies which require willpower and regular sessions
2) uses scientific methods, scanning methods e.g fMRI scans and drug studies which assess biological processes whilst avoiding bias, therefore objective and reliable data
35
what is a weakness of the biological approach
1) reductionist, suggests main cause of mental disorders is through genes and neurochemical imbalances, but this doesn't account for environmental influences, therefore approach ignores complexity of human behaviour by reducing it down to simpler components, e.g diathesis stress model includes both biological and environmental factors
2) belief of biological determinism has implications, e.g arguing criminal behaviour is due to a ‘criminal gene’ could challenge legal principles of responsibility as well as shorter prison sentences. The economical impact would be that if such information about genes coding for mental heath disorders or criminality were made public, then such individuals may be denied health insurance and jobs on this basis, so has potentially severe real life consequences
36
what are the assumptions for the cognitive approach
- internal mental processes are an explanation on how we behave
- typical areas of research are attention, perception and memory
- information is taken from the environment via the senses and a behavioural output is performed
- it also see’s the mind work similar to a computer with most of cognitive psychology often referring to the information processing model and metaphors such as ‘encoding, processing and retrieval’
- as cognitive processes are not actually visible to be tested directly, psychologists must study them indirectly through making inferences about results gained from observing behaviour
37
what is a schema
- a package of beliefs and expectations on a topic that come from prior experience
- they are useful by helping us take shortcuts in thinking
- allow us to engage with world without being overwhelmed by sensory information, processing information quickly
- slow us to make predictions about what objects and people will do in similar situations
- however can lead to faulty schemas can lead to inaccurate memory and negatively biased schemas can produce mental health issues
- may also cause individuals to focus on things which confirm people’s pre-existing beliefs and ideas rather than allow us to accept new ones
38
define the term inference
- make assumptions about mental processes that can't be directly observed
39
what are the two different types of models that are used to understand the brain (cognitive approach) and explain them
- theoretical: simplified interpretations of more complex behaviours, flowcharts to represent steps of mental processes e.g multi store model. Provide an illustrative way to display different memory stores, cause and effect and how mental processes occur between different stores e.g how info passes from environment to sensory stores and STM to LTM
- computer: many similarities between the way in which computers work and the human mind, both systems receive inputs, generate outputs and process info through a sequence of programmed steps
40
what are the strengths of the cognitive approach
1) has many applications, been able to explain behaviour in terms of faulty thinking processes, E.g depressed people have negative self schemas. This has led to the development of treatments such as depression with cognitive behavioural therapies.
2) considered a scientific approach, variables are controlled during experiments and methods are objective e.g many studies supporting models of memory were conducted in a lab with large samples and standardised materials, therefore high internal validity
3) soft deterministic, recognise behaviour is partly determined by biology and the environment- experiences create schemas, yet thought processes provide personal control over actions, forms the foundation of CBT equipping clients with strategies to modify their thought patterns, so patients play an active role in their recovery which contrasts drug treatments based solely on biological determinism
41
what is a weakness of the cognitive approach
1) approach is based of machine reductionism, the computer analogy has been criticised as influences such as emotion affect things such as accuracy of recall e.g EWT. These factors aren't considered in the computer analogy, terms such as ‘encoding, storage and retrieval’ are taken from computer terminology and there is a huge difference between information processing which occurs with machines and biological structures such as the human mind.
2) inferences are made, only assumptions which can be mistaken, despite highly controlled lab studies, aren’t considered fully scientific, however only way to explore mental processes
3) studies into cognitive psychology have little to do with everyday behaviour in natural settings. E.g studies tend to be in lab settings using methods to test memory that ppl would unlikely face such as random word lists or digits. This is unlike how memory is used in everyday life nor does it actually explain how people may forget memories. Therefore we are drawing conclusions into experiments which lack ecological validity and generalisation to real life situations, lacks external validity
42
explain the emergence of neuroscience
-scientific study of influence of brain structures on mental processes
- with advanced brain scanning scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing and see what parts of brains are active during diff tasks e.g Broca’s area responsible for speech production
- came from patient Tan- could only say ‘Tan’, after death, autopsy showed damage in Broca’s area, today showing that Broca’s area activates in healthy brains during language production
- this includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex (Tulving)
- highly scientific, uses brain scans, scientific method, Maguire et al found increased volume of grey matter in hippocampus of London taxi drivers using MRI tech, part of brain is localised to spatial navigation
- however scans can be too radiating, therefore unsafe
- Tulving’s PET research - procedural- motor cortex
- episodic- hippocampus (pre frontal cortex)
- semantic- temporal lobe
43
what is the assumption for the psychodynamic approach (Freud)
- experiences in early childhood play a key role in determining an individual’s mental/emotional state
- Freud suggested the mind is made up of the conscious, preconscious (may become aware of through dreams and slip of the tongue) , and unconscious (influence our behaviour)
-traumatic or disturbing events from child/adulthood can be repressed into the unconscious mind where we cannot access them.
- the unconscious mind controlled most of our everyday behaviours, both out waking and sleeping minds and role was to actively suppress and prevent traumatic memories form reaching our conscious awareness through use of defence mechanisms
- can only be made conscious through hypnosis/dream analysis/slips of the tongue
44
what are the 3 structures that Freud divided the mind into
- the id
- the superego
- the ego
45
what is the id
- contains the libido (sex drive)
- demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstances
- the source of our unconscious desires and impulses
- operates on the pleasure principle
46
what is the ego
- mediates between the demands of id and the moralistic demands of the super ego
- operates on the reality principle
47
what is the superego
- contains our moral values, operates on the morality principle.
- controls the id's impulses
- consists of the conscience (guilt) when individuals actions don’t match it’s strict standards and ego ideal (proud when right choice is made)
- internalisation takes place where children internalise societal moral codes on right or wrong behaviours
48
what are the 4 defence mechanisms and explain them
- defence mechanisms may provide temporary relief
1) repression - pushing unwanted memories into the unconscious mind, unable to cause anxiety or hurt e.g abuse in childhood may not be recalled but may still effect person e.g unable to form healthy relationships in adult life
2) displacement- unacceptable drive such as hatred is displaced to an acceptable target to reduce anxiety(unconscious), less threatening target, almost cathartic as it provides psychological relief through open expression of strong emotions
3) denial- refusing the accept the truth/ reality of situation (unconscious)
4) reaction formation - consciously feeling or thinking the opposite of what u unconsciously (truly) feel, so act in the opposite way of how u feel
49
what are the 5 psychosexual stages according to Freud?
1) oral stage (0-1 years)
2) anal stage (1-3 years)
3) phallic stage (3-6 years)
4) latency stage (6 years to puberty)
5) genital stage (puberty onwards)
50
describe the oral stage
- mouth is the main focus of pleasure
- mothers breast is the object of desire, successful completion is demonstrated by weaning
- the consequence of unresolved conflict is oral fixation (bites nails, may smoke)
51
describe the anal stage
- defecation (pooing) main source of pleasure
- consequences of unresolved conflict:
anally retentive fixation - very tidy, perfectionist (conflict when holding on too tightly in toilet training)
anally expulsive- thoughtless, messy, chaos (conflict when defecating freely in toilet training)
52
describe the phallic stage
- genital area main source of pleasure
- oedipus complex: boy desires his mother sees her as a love interest, wants father out the way, castration anxiety: fear father will remove penis/testicles, to resolve anxiety they indent it with father
- electra complex: girls experience penis envy, desire their fathers, hate mothers, resolved once she gives birth to male child
- consequences of unresolved conflict:
phallic personality: narcissistic, reckless
- if successfully completed this stage, child is able to identify with same sex parent
53
describe the latency stage
- sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies
- earlier conflicts are repressed
- many also develop mastery of their world around them and consolidate the character habits they formed in the three previous stages of psychosexual development
54
describe the genital stage
- genitals are the focus of pleasure
- form healthy adult relationships
- sexual impulses are repressed, however sexual desires become conscious
- sexual energy is focused on genitals with ego being established and persons focus shifting from pleasure gratification to secondary process thinking and gratification through friendships, intimate relationships and family/adult responsibilities
- unresolved conflict (genital fixation) : difficulty forming healthy relationships and heterosexual relationships
55
what are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach
1) approach is unfalsifiable, Freud's claims are metaphysical, meaning they rely on concepts that cannot be proven, subjective and open to interpretation
- no attempt to use experimental, observable and empirical methods to measure behaviour, unscientific e.g claims that criminals have an overdeveloped or underdeveloped or deviant superego, however these can’t be tested
2) Psychic determinism, approach suggests our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts, and outcomes have already been decided, however this leaves no room for free will and suggests his views were too extreme, limiting the scope of the theory
3) lacks scientific credibility, supported through case studies e.g Little Hans and by interpreting his clients, therefore interpretations were potentially biased
4) approach is gender biased, views on female sexuality were much less developed than his male views. Although his views were based on sexual development which would apply to both genders, his theories focused primarily on male sexuality. This is problematic considering how much influence the approach still holds today but also as an explanation for behaviour it may have limited validity across both genders
56
what is a strength of the psychodynamic approach
1) has explanatory power, has been used to explain a wide range of behaviours and drew attention to the influence of childhood on adult personality, therefore has had a positive influence on psychology and modern-day thinking
2) real world application, introduced psychotherapy, through psychoanalysis, clients deal with everyday problems by providing access to their unconscious employing techniques such as dream analysis, driving force in counselling, large scale review by De Maat et al found to show significant and maintained improvements after treatment adding further credibility to the psychodynamic approach
57
what is the assumption of the humanistic approach?
- argues that human behaviour is too complex to study through reductionist methods, instead a holistic approach to explaining behaviour, considering all possible influences
- human beings are self-determining and have free will
- science should not be used to explain behaviour, humans should be viewed holistically
- opposition to behaviourist and biological approach
58
what are the 5 levels of Maslow's hierarchical needs
1) Physiological needs (food, water, sleep..)
2) safety needs (security, protection, employment, morality, family)
3) love/belonging (friendship, family, sexual intimacy)
4) self esteem (positive self image)
5)self-actualization (full potential and best version of self, creativity, spontaneity) only possible to reach once all previous levels have been scaled
59
what is self-actualization
- an innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possibly be
- foundational needs must be met for an individual to self actualise
- congruence is essential for achieving self actualisation
60
What does Rodger assume about unconditional positive regard? (humanistic approach)
- we have a basic need to feel nurtured and valued by significant ppl in our lives
- if this is given freely (unconditional positive regard) we develop a healthy self-worth
- if negative regard is received we develop a low self- esteem
61
define the term congruence
- congruence occurs when a persons ideal self and self-concept are seen as the same
62
define the term incongruence
- when theres a significant gap between ideal self and self concept
- incongruence can lead to low self-worth
- self actualisation will not be possible
63
define the term conditions of worth
- a person who is only loved and accepted when they act and behave as others want them to (conditional regard)
- stores psychological problems for child in the future
- this must be reduced to develop a more realistic ideal self
- lack of unconditional positive regard
- unconditional positive regard is important for people to reach self actualisation and with conditions set for them t be loved, this makes self actualisation more difficult to achieve
64
what are the strengths of the humanistic approach
1) anti-reductionist, holistic, does not attempt to break up human behaviour into smaller components compared to other approaches, more validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context, idiographic approach is high in ecological validity
2) can explain depression in teenagers (negative self esteem), and gives ways to help reduce this through client centred therapy
3) practical applications- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been widely applied, improved performance in sports, enhanced employee satisfaction and motivation in the business world, created a better learning environment for students in education, and improved health outcomes by providing holistic care due to a better understanding of patient needs
65
what is a weakness of the humanistic approach
1) culture bias, not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment. In collectivist cultures e.g China, the focus is on the group rather than the individual, therefore approach doesn't apply universally, only applicable to individualistic cultures
2) sense of vagueness, difficult to operationalise and measure (e.g at what point has self actualisation been reached and how can this be recorded)
- lacks reliability and is too open to interpretation
3) considered non scientific- due to reliance on non-experimental qualitative methods, leads to lack of empirical evidence for many of its claims
66
What are strengths of Wundt’s introspection method
1) highly scientific, controlled experiments, systematic approach e.g same stimulus was used each time, allowing for replication under standardised conditions, hence producing reliable data
2) use of inferences influenced cognitive psychologists, researchers asked ppts to complete tasks under experimental conditions and made inferences about the structure of internal mental processes like memory and attention
67
What are weaknesses of Wundt’s introspection method
1) considered subjective and are not truly scientific as ppts cannot be relied on to report their mental states accurately
2) use of inference to identify internal mental states has been criticised. Inferences are assumptions so they could be mistaken
68
What is meant by evolution and behaviour in the biological approach
- evolutionary psychologists argue that innate behaviours that provide survival and advantages are selected for and become mire common in future generations of a species. E.g in early hunter societies, male aggression was beneficial for protecting families, hunting and competing for mates. Less aggressive males were less likely to reproduce, leading to highly aggressive traits to be passed on
69
What is Carl Roger’s client centred therapy (increase feelings of self worth and reduce incongruence)
- therapists focus on building relationships with clients and making them feel comfortable and accepted so they feel unconditional positive regard
- this helps nurture a relationship where patients can be completely open and honest, hep patients better understand themselves to reach their potential and self actualisation
- may help remove any conditions of worth people may have, patients can then move towards being their true self and congruent and behave how they wish to rather than in a manner to please others
70
What are the key comparison points when comparing approaches
1) scientific methodology
2) determinism
3) nature and nurture
4) reductionism
5) psychological treatments
71
A03
What is a weakness of classical conditioning as an explanation in the behaviourist approach
1) highly deterministic (environmental determinism), assumes ppl are controlled buy environmental forces and have little autonomy over their destiny
- may be more appropriate explanation for animal behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions, motivation and reasoning skills
- hence behaviourist approach may be a limited explanation for human behaviour
2) Watson and Rayner’s experiment on Little Albert failed to protect him from psychological harm, no opportunity to withdraw
- viewed as unethical, would need a cost-benefit analysis
72
A01
What is the nervous system
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
- receives, sends and responds to sensory information
73
A01
What is the peripheral nervous system
- relays information between body and brain
- information includes involuntary responses such as breathing and heartbeat as well as sensory information and control of voluntary movement
74
A01
What is the endocrine system
- chemical messaging system that operates throughout body
- secrets hormones into the bloodstream from different glands
- e.g pituitary gland known as master gland
- instructs other glands to release hormones as well
- e.g hormone is adrenaline (fight or flight), testosterone (male sex hormone)
75
A01
Explain the evolutionary approach to explaining behaviour (biological approach)
- human traits have evolved via the process of natural selection
- e.g aggression, evolutionary usefulness to fight off predators and enemies
- mate selection, select a mate who will bear healthy offspring
- natural selection, behaviours and traits which are useful for survival and reproduction are retained
- adaptive behaviours increase chances of survival and reproductive success
- behaviours are inherited through generations via genetic transmission of ‘beneficial’ characteristics (heredity)
- e,g intelligence is an adaptive trait
- random mutation in genetic makeup of an animal due to environmental pressures will lead to a physical characteristic change or behavioural change. This would in turn either increase their chances of survival and re predication or lower it
- if mutation increases chance of survival they become more likely to gain access to such resources over their competition
- if succeed in reproducing, adaptive trait gets passed onto offspring
76
A01
Briefly explain how the Little Hans case studies links to the psychodynamic approach, specifically the psychosexual stages
- Little Hans’ phobia of horses stemmed from a fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires for his mother
- e.g experiencing the Oedipus complex
- Freud’s detailed notes and observations of Hans allowed him to interpret Hans’ phobia as being evidence of the Oedipus complex (horse represented his father)
77
A01
What are the main theories and ideas in the humanistic approach
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- Roger’s client centred therapy
- Unconditional positive regard
- self-actualisation
78
A01
Explain Rodger’s client centred therapy
- focus on the positive aspects of client
- increase clients self worth and reduce incongruence between self and ideal self
- provide unconditional positive regard that client did not receive in childhood
79
A03
What is a strength of Rodger’s client centred therapy
1) focuses on the positive aspects of person being treated
- had a major impact on counselling psychology and how such therapies are used both in the USA and the UK
- removes blame, guilt and shame from ppl who seek counselling
- acknowledge s that individuals do have free will and the ability to improve themselves
- this is in contrast to Freud’s psychotherapy which tend to dwell upon childhood experiences
80
A03
Evaluating behaviourist approach
+ based on experimental method, manipulation of the IV and sees effects on DV in controlled conditions where extraneous variables are eliminated (Skinner’s box), allows us to establish cause and effect relationship, high control- easier to replicate (however may lack eco val, unclear if reflective of real life)
+ real life app- token economy systems in prisons, rewards for good behaviours (operant), cc led to treatment of phobias-s systematic desensitisation, so improves lives of ppl in society and environment in institutions
- sufferers anthropomorphism, findings of animal behaviour cant be applied to humans, therefore limited explanation
- unethical, use of animals broke ethical guidelines (BPS), animals under stress react differently in experimental conditions compared to if they were more relaxed, cant be sure this learning takes place in natural environment, lacks external validity
81
A03
What are weaknesses of the behaviourist approach
1) deterministic- proposes all behaviour has a cause, free will is an illusion and our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces where we have no control over
- determined by environment thus ignores influence of free will
- negates role of free will in behaviour which reduces the usefulness of the approach, seeing people in almost mechanical terms
- may be more appropriate explanation for animal behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions, motivations and reasoning skills (e.g as SLT does), hence may be limited explanation for human behaviour
2) Approach cannot fully explain or treat all disorders such as SZ, for example which has been linked to biological causes (high dopamine). This explanation would then result in behaviourist treatments and may only treat the symptoms rather than the underlying cause which may not lead to long lasting solutions with the true cause persisting. Out may be that symptoms are behaviour while the cause is potentially biological in some cases which this explanation ignores.
82
A01
What are the 3 versions of ourselves which need to integrate for people to achieve self-actualisation and reach their potential according to Roger’s
1) self concept- how ppl felt they were as a persons, self esteem is closely linked to this self concept as ppl with low self esteem would view their self concept as poor and have low regard for their own ability.
2) the idea self, the version of themselves people wished to be and who they are working towards becoming
3) real self, person people actually are, this becomes subjective between people as humanistic psychology views everyone to perceive and judge things differently
83
Explain Bandura’s research into SLT
- 36 boys and 36 girls, matched pairs design based on levels of aggression ratings from nursery staff
- male or female model was observed in each condition
1) aggressive model- acted aggressively towards Bobo doll
2) non-aggressive model- model behaved in non aggressive way
3) control group- no model was present
- child observed model, then taken to a room for aggression arousal (telling child they can’t play with any toys in the room)
- then taken to room with bobo doll and observed using a one way mirror for 20 mins
- children who observed aggressive behaviour were more likely to be aggressive, boys were physically aggressive and girls were more verbally aggressive
- children were more likely to imitate the behaviour of same sex model
- therefore aggression was learned via mechanisms of SLT
84
What are some strengths of Bandura’s study
Strength: well controlled, standardised procedures meaning study could be replicated easily so has high reliability
- fuelled debate as to children’s exposure to the depiction of violence on television- study has good external validity as it can be applied to settings and behaviours beyond the experimental space itself
85
What is a strength for the use of theoretical models in the cognitive approach
- generates testable hypotheses, allowing each assumption to be systematically and scientifically tested. If the observed behaviour matches the model’s predictions it suggests the model is valid. If behaviour contradicts the model, the model can be adjusted or rejected
86
How can an individual become more congruent
1) adopt a more realistic ideal self- conditions of worth can lead to ideal self that is unattainable perfect or not truly reflective of someone’s genuine desires and values, by recognising and modifying these unrealistic standards individuals can set more attainable goals that are in harmony of their true selves
2) improving self concept/perceived self- helped by receiving unconditional positive regard from others, more likely to experience a positive and realistic self image
87
What is a strength of Roger’s client centred therapy
1) focuses on the positive aspects of the person being treated, removed blame guilt and shame from people who seek counselling, therefore this is likely to lead to a good rate of client retention (participants who stick with a particular course of treatment) and lack client attrition, meaning approach can be viewed as a useful and valuable resource
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (11)
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