What is hostile aggression?
Aggression with the intention to harm, accompanied by anger.
What is assertion?
Forceful but legal behaviour within the rules; no intention to harm.
What is instrumental aggression?
Aggression used as a means to achieve a goal, with intent to harm but also to win gain advantage.
List common causes of aggression in sport.
Losing, frustration, unfair officiating, poor performance, rivalry, hostile environment, low self-esteem, modelling others, pressure to win, innate traits.
What does Instinct Theory (Freud, Lorenz) propose about aggression?
Aggression is innate, genetically determined, and will surface when threatened.
What is Freud’s ‘death instinct’?
A biological drive that can manifest as aggression.
What is catharsis in Instinct Theory?
Emotional release experienced after expressing aggression, often through sport.
Give one evaluation point against Instinct Theory.
It cannot explain differences in aggression across situations; aggression can be learned; not all ancestors were aggressive.
What does Social Learning Theory (Bandura) say about aggression?
Aggression is learned through observing, identifying with, and copying role models, especially when behaviour is reinforced.
What increases the likelihood of aggressive behaviour being copied?
Reinforcement, seeing success, observing significant others, consistent modelling.
Give one drawback of Social Learning Theory.
Does not account for inherited traits; some players show aggression instinctively without observing it.
What does the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard) propose?
Frustration from blocked goals increases the likelihood of aggression.
Who becomes frustrated more quickly: ego- or task-oriented performers?
Ego-oriented performers.
When does catharsis occur in Frustration-Aggression Theory?
When a successful aggressive act releases built-up frustration.
What happens if aggression fails or is punished?
Further frustration occurs, increasing aggression.
Why is this theory considered interactionist?
Environment triggers inherited aggressive tendencies.
What does the Aggressive Cue Hypothesis (Berkowitz) propose?
Frustration creates readiness for aggression, but aggression only occurs when triggered by environmental cues.
Give examples of aggressive cues.
Unfairness, opposition shirts, nature of the game, equipment like bats or sticks, physical contact at set pieces.
Why is this theory considered interactionist?
Environmental cues trigger genetically inherited aggressive tendencies.
How can aggressive behaviour be reduced in sport?
Do not reinforce aggression, punish it, reward calm behaviour, talk to players, substitute them, relaxation, mental rehearsal, lower arousal, de-intensify the situation.
What is channeling aggression into assertion?
Redirecting aggressive energy into controlled, legal, effortful performance.
