Approaches notes Flashcards

Question

What are the advantages of behaviourism?

Answer 1

Introduced an empiricist approach to psychology - This made psychology a lot more scientific and high in interval validity - This allowed cause and effect relationships to be discovered between stimuli and behaviour

Answer 2

Behaviourist explanations are deterministic. They ignore the concept of free will - skinner argued strongly that free will is merely an illusion - this is a depressing vie of human nature Behaviourist explanations are also reductionist (**It doesn't consider how other factors interact together in influencing behaviour which reduces the validity of the approach/debate**.)

Answer 3

Gambling addictions can be explained by the principles of behaviourisms. The lottery and fruit machines use variable ratio to make the player believe that there is a higher chance of winning than there is.

Answer 4

This approach assumes that a person is the product of their environment (nurture), they are born a ‘blank slate’ and all behaviour is learned. those who take this approach argue that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than our own thoughts, which can’t easily be measured

Answer 5

- Behaviour is learned - all behaviour (apart from reflexes in new-borns) is learned from experience. - we are essentially born ‘Tabula Rasa’, or blank slates - this is known as empiricism - the mind is ‘irrelevant’ - we can’t directly observe what people are thinking - the only measurable data is gained from observing behaviour directly - environmental determinism - the is no free will. Our behaviour is controlled by forces in the environment, and can only be changed by changing the environment - animals and humans learn in the same ways - humans learn in the same way as other animals, through simple stimulus-response associations - we learn to drive in the same way that a cat learns to use a cat flap - therefore, animal studies can be used to make generalisations about humans - experimental results can be used to make laws about human behaviour (a nomothetic approach )

Answer 6

- a way of learning from our environment where we **associate** two stimuli, so that one comes to cause the same response as the other - this is famously demonstrated in Pavlov's research with dogs

Answer 7

- classical conditioning explains how we associate different things with reflexive actions, and so reflexive actions start occurring in response to different stimuli - Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to associate with food (such as a food bowl or bell) would trigger the same response, he realised he had made an important discovery, and that he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning

Answer 8

- Watson and Rayner demonstrated that fear could be developed through classical conditioning. Watson proposed that the emotion of fear in infants is a natural response to loud noise. - An 11 month-old child known as Little Albert showed no fear of stimuli such s a white rat, or cotton wool. He di however show a fear response to a loud noise behind him, a hammer hitting a steel bar. The experimenters made this noise several times, at the same time presenting him with a white rat. Albert developed a fear of rats (and indeed of all white furry things), a process called generalisation.

Answer 9

Ecological validity - refers to whether a study's findings can be generalized to additional situations or settings.

Answer 10

Timing Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalisation

Answer 11

Timing - if the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great), then conditioning does not take place

Answer 12

Extinction - Pavlov discovered that unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR

Answer 13

Spontaneous recovery - following extinction, if the CS and the UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly

Answer 14

Generalisation - Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS

Answer 15

stimulus - anything, internal or external, that brings about a response

Answer 16

response - any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

Answer 17

neutral stimulus (NS) -a stimulus which does not naturally produce a response

Answer 18

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that produces a reflex reaction

Answer 19

unconditioned response (UCR) - an innate, reflex response

Answer 20

conditioned stimulus (CS) - the stimulus which produces the learned response after an association has taken place

Answer 21

conditioned response (CR) - learning by association. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

Answer 22

- There is research support that classical conditioning can affect behaviour - E.g. Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that CC could create phobias… - Classical conditioning has useful applications, e.g. as an effective in the treatment of phobias - systematic desensitisation - Gilroy et al. (2003) conducted an experiment to assess the effectiveness of desensitisation as a treatment for people with a phobia of spiders - Grp1 received desensitisation therapy for their phobia. Grp 2 were the control group and had ‘relaxation without exposure’ - After both 3 and 33 months the SD group were less fearful on a spider phobia questionnaire than the control group - This CS has stopped producing the CR. This known as extinction

Answer 23

- Classical conditioning is a reductionist explanation of behaviour - It explains behaviour by breaking down to just a single explanation (in this case stimulus-response associations) - This is over simplistic, as it ignores all the other things that could affect behaviour

Answer 24

Later behaviourists suggest that there must be some meditational processes which lie between the stimulus-response that influence our behaviour. This approach assumes that mental processes are important in how people learn behaviour. Also it seems possible that we can learn by observing another persons behaviour which behaviourism didn't allow for - SLT sees people as active manipulators of their of their own environment - concerned with human rather than animal behaviour - **vicarious reinforcement** - watching someone else get a punishment/reward for their actions

Answer 25

- In order for social learning to take place, someone has to demonstrate, or morsel, the behaviour to be learned - There are several different types of model: - live models - parents/teachers/peers - Symbolic models - celebrities, sports stars, or characters form films or tv

Answer 26

- Models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and then reproduce in a process known as imitation - research on imitation has shown that, unlike the slow learning process of conditioning, whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired when a model is present - There are several key determinants: - The characteristics of the model - The observers perceived ability to replicate the behaviour - The observed consequences - self efficacy - an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments

Answer 27

- This refers to the extent to which the observer relates to the model - this is often represented by how similar they are to the model - Identification occurs when the observer feels they are similar enough to the model so that they will experience the same outcomes in the observed situation - research suggests that children are much more likely to identify and potentially learn from models who are similar to them - particularly same sex models

Answer 28

- This concept suggests that an individual does not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order for learning to take place - Instead, they can observe the consequences experienced by the model and make judgements based on the likelihood of them experiencing the same outcomes - This is the cognitive process that Bandura claims to differentiate SLT from other forms of conditioning

Answer 29

- for effective learning to take place, cognitive mediational processes need to occur: 1. Attention - you have to pay attention to the behaviour 2. Retention - you need to remember what you saw 3. Reproduction - you have to judge whether you are able to reproduce the behaviour 4. Motivation - you have to evaluate the consequences of the behaviour

Answer 30

Hypothesis: That those who watched aggressive adults will imitate them and that those who watched an adult of the same sex as them will be more likely to replicate their actions than those of an opposite sex Sample: Tested 36 boys and 36 girls from Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6. researchers pre-tested the children and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales. Procedure 1: In the first room they see an aggressive adult beat up a bobo doll. Or they see a non aggressive model. Or they saw no model at all. Aggression Arousal: All children were taken into a room with toys. As soon as the child started playing with them, the experimenters then took the toys away Observation in room: The child went into a room with non aggressive toys and bobo doll. They were watched through a one way mirror and observations were made at 5 second intervals Summary results: Those who observed the aggressive model had more aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups. Boys were more physically aggressive and there was little difference in verbal aggression. Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models The idea at the time was that watching aggression would purge you of aggression. The experiment concluded that this was indeed not true. Boys who watched men had the closest imitation. What the children saw, the children did. Banduras experiment took place, just as tv was being entered into the home - repeated the experiment later on of aggression from the tv. Children imitated what they did. How we learn as we grow changes, we develop empathy and the ability to reflect on what we see.

Answer 31

- would children only imitate aggressive role models seen in real life, or in film or cartoons as well? - The basic procedure was the same as for the previous study, but one group watched a film of the aggressive model, and another watched a film where the aggressive model was dressed as a cartoon character

Answer 32

Children were more aggressive after watching filmed and cartoon models

Answer 33

- Would imitation change if they saw the model rewarded or punished? - IV is now whether the model is rewarded, punished or there were no consequences - In the Reward condition, the experimenter arrived a praised the model (”Rocky”) for his “superb aggressive performance” and gave Rocky sweets, which he ate - In the Punishment condition, the experimenter called Rocky “a big bully” and hit him with a rolled-up newspaper - The ‘Model Punished’ condition produced much less imitation, especially among the girls. The ‘Reward’ condition produced about the same imitation form girls and boys as the ‘No Consequences’ condition (though boys were more aggressive than girls overall)

Answer 34

- Strengths: - Banduras studies took place in carefully controlled environments, increasing the internal validity of the studies - Weaknesses: - Aggression could have been produced because of demand characteristics, rather than genuine observational learning

Answer 35

Strengths: - The principles of SLT have had useful applications to real-life human behaviour - e.g. Criminal Behaviour - Osborne and West (1979) - 40% of sons with fathers with criminal convictions had committed a crime before the age of 18, compared to only 13% of a control group - Farringdon et al (2006) - Found that one of the most important risk factor at the age of 8-10 for later offending was family criminality - SLT was also used to justify a “watershed” on TV, where violence, sexual content or obscene language are only shown after 9pm Limitations: - SLT is reductionist, as it disregards other potential influences on behaviour… such as biology (though it is a fuller explanation than just behaviourism) - e.g. the development of criminal behaviour (see above) behaviour may not be entirely due to SLT, but instead may be influenced by genetics - Therefore SLT does not provide a full explanation of behaviour (though it is a fuller explanation than just behaviourism) - Also, if there are so many potential influences on specific behaviour, it becomes very difficult to show how one influence (e.g. social learning) can be the main casual issue

Answer 36

- An approach studies the links between brain structure and function and cognition - e.g. are different areas of brain involved for different cognitive processes? - Does activity in an area/ areas change for different tasks/ processes? - The influence of neuroscience on Psychology begins in 70s and 80s - Modern brain imaging techniques led to the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 37

- Lesion studies - Causing brain damage (almost always in animals) to see how behaviour changes - Case studies of brain damage - e.g. in humans after an accident - Neuroimaging (brain scanning) - Pinpointing areas of the brain which are active during certain tasks - e.g. PET scans are used to demonstrate brain activity in memory tasks

Answer 38

- Areas of the brain associated with memory: - Research has found that the prefrontal cortex is active when individuals are working on a task in immediate (i.e. STM) memory (Courtney et al. 1997), whereas the hippocampus is related to episodic LTM formation (Maguire et al. 2000) - This tells us that different parts of the brain are used for different forms of memory - Maguires famous studies used London taxi drivers to investigate long term memory

Answer 39

- One strength of the cognitive approach is that it provides a less simplistic account of behaviour than the behaviourist approach - it considers the impact of mental processes on behaviour; often overlooked by other approaches - HOWEVER the approach may still be guilty of machine reductionism - It assumes that everyone processes information the same way (like an information processing machine) - This ignores the effect of other factors, such as emotion, personality or biology, which may affect behaviour - The approach therefore does not provide a full explanation of behaviour - The approach also has many useful real life applications - for example, it has had a large influence on the development of therapies such as, cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) - The approach is highly scientific. It has always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study

Answer 40

- One weakness of the cognitive approach is that the research may lack ecological validity - Research is often carried out in overly controlled, artificial environments - This may mean that it is difficult to generalise findings from these experiments to behaviour in the real world

Answer 41

Assumes that our internal mental processes (e.g. our memories, thinking and opinions) are important features in influencing human behaviour. Cognitive psychologists believe we are all like computers: input - processing - output

Answer 42

Cognitive approach - the term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g., thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour

Answer 43

Internal mental processes - ‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

Answer 44

Schema - a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience

Answer 45

Inference - The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

Answer 46

Cognitive neuroscience - The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

Answer 47

- Unlike with the behavioural approach, cognitive psychologists focus on the internal workings of the mind and explains behaviour through cognitive processes - perception, language, attention and memory - Like the behavioural approach, cognitive psychology uses experimental methods to test theories scientifically - The workings of the human mind is often compared to the workings of a computer - Input, process and output

Answer 48

- Behaviour can best be understood by looking at the processes which come between an environmental stimulus and the behavioural response - Cognitive psychologists reject the behaviourists explanation of learning as a result of random trial and error. Instead they argue that cognitive processes operate in an organised and systematic manner - The computer analogy. The human mind is compared to a computer and human beings are seen as information processors who absorb information from the outside world, code and interpret it, store it and retrieve it - Inference. Cognitive psychologists argue that insights into mental processes may be inferred from an individuals behaviour - This means making assumptions about processes which cannot be directly observed - models. From their inferences, cognitive psychologists may build either **theoretical or computer models of cognitive processes** - theoretical - model is simplified, usually pictorial, representation of a particular mental processes. They often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect of the stages of a particular mental processes - cognitive psychologists use experimental methods with its emphasis on objectivity control and replicability

Answer 49

- during the 1950s and 1960s, computers became more and more prominent - during this time, psychologists began to drew analogies between the way humans and computers functioned: - the brain is described as a processor - the thing that makes things happen, - Some parts of the brain form networks - Some parts work sequentially - one process must finish before another starts - some parts can work in parallel - information travels to and fro along lots of paths at the same time

Answer 50

- Humans are often influenced by emotional and motivational factors - something that doesn’t effect computers - Humans have a potentially unlimited, yet unreliable memory, whereas computers have a limited but reliable memory - Humans have free will - the ability to choose between decisions - computers are programmed by others to respond in a specific way

Answer 51

the tendency for people to over-emphasize dispositional or personality-based explanations for behaviours observed in others while under-emphasizing situational explanations. In other words, people have a cognitive bias to assume that a person’s actions depend on what “kind” of person that person is rather than on the social and environmental forces that influence the person.

Answer 52

- A schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectations taht influence cognit9ve processing - They are developed through experience - They contain all the information you know about an object, action or concept - They help you organise and interpret information. Schema enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly, helping to prevent cognitive overload

Answer 53

- When information is consistent with a schema, it is assimilated into the schema, so strengthening the schema - When information is inconsistent with a schema, accommodation occurs. The schema has to change in order to resolve the problem

Answer 54

Role Schemas Event Schemas Self Schemas

Answer 55

- Role Schemas: - Ideas about behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation

Answer 56

- Event Schemas: - Also called scripts. Ideas about what happens in a given scenario

Answer 57

- Self Schemas: - These contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality - These can affect how you would act in a given situation

Answer 58

- Schemas may lead to prejudice and bias. Some schemas can stop us from learning new information - Stereotypes can cause a bias in the way we process information - We are more likely to pay attention to information we can assimilate - We are more likely to ignore information we would have to accommodate - This may mean that we only remember the information that fits with our expectations!

Answer 59

- Schema theory has had useful applications to real life situations, such as improving the reliability of eye-witness testimony - When giving a witness statement, any memory gaps are likely to be filled with what is expected in that situation - The cognitive interview technique tries to reduce the impact of schemas on memory by changing the order - e.g. asking the witness to start at the end and report in reverse

Answer 60

Schemas can be both good and bad. For example, schemas can have useful applications to real life situations, such as improving the reliability of eye-witness testimonies (when giving a witness statement, any memory gaps are likely to be filled with what is expected of that situation). However schemas can lead to prejudice and bias. They can stop us from learning new information (stereotypes can cause bias in the way we process information.

Answer 61

a philosophical belief that states your knowledge of the world is based on your experiences, particularly your sensory experiences. According to empiricists, our learning is based on our observations and perception; knowledge is not possible without experience.

Answer 62

the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Answer 63

a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Researchers make observations in order to describe and measure behaviour.

Answer 64

This approach assumes that a person is the product of their environment (nurture), they are born a ‘blank slate’ and all behaviour is learned. those who take this approach argue that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than our own thoughts, which can’t easily be measured

Answer 65

a way of learning from our environment where we associate two stimuli, so that one comes to cause the same response as the other

Answer 66

a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behaviour. Through operant conditioning, behaviour that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behaviour that is punished will rarely occur.

Answer 67

punishment is where negative outcomes are introduced in order to discourage a behaviour. These can either be positive or negative

Answer 68

reinforcement is where positive outcomes for behaviour are introduced in order to encourage that behaviour to continue. These can be either positive or negative reinforces

Answer 69

This refers to the extent to which the observer relates to the model, this is often represented by how similar they are to the model. Identification occurs when the observer feels they are similar enough to the model so that they will experience the same outcomes in the observed situation. Research suggests that children are much more likely to identify and potentially learn from models who are similar to them - particularly same sex models

Answer 70

Models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and then reproduce in a process known as imitation. Research on imitation has shown that, unlike the slow learning process of conditioning, whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired when a model is present. There are several key determinants: The characteristics of the model, The observers perceived ability to replicate the behaviour, The observed consequences.

Answer 71

an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments

Answer 72

- for effective learning to take place, cognitive mediational processes need to occur: 1. Attention - you have to pay attention to the behaviour 2. Retention - you need to remember what you saw 3. Reproduction - you have to judge whether you are able to reproduce the behaviour 4. Motivation - you have to evaluate the consequences of the behaviour

Answer 73

In order for social learning to take place, someone has to demonstrate, or morsel, the behaviour to be learned. There are several different types of model: live models - parents/teachers/peers and symbolic models - celebrities, sports stars, or characters form films or tv

Answer 74

diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes, e.g. the information-processing model.

Answer 75

- comparative method (animal studies) - where animals are studied and conclusions are generalised to humans. - Research has found that mice reared alone showed a tendency to attack other mice when first exposed to them. This must be biological because they couldn’t have learned the behaviour, suggesting that aggression has a biological basis.

Answer 76

- scanning techniques - Biological psychologists can scan the brain to determine the influence of biological structures on behaviour. - For instance, MRI scans of London taxi drivers showed that they have larger hippocampi than a control group. This suggests that the hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation.

Answer 77

- case studies - people who go through accidents and suffer brain damage can be studied to tell us about the functions of different regions of the brain. - For example, Phineas Gage suffered damage to his ventromedial frontal lobes when an iron rod went through his head (he survived!). He had difficulty making rational decisions and processing emotions. This led psychologists to believe that these are the functions of the ventromedial frontal lobes.

Answer 78

- It is considered one of the most scientific approaches in psychology - research is highly controlled, reliable and objective - this means it can take a nomothetic approach to behaviour - The biological approach has had many useful applications to everyday life, for example in the development of treatments - it is based on the assumption that if a behaviour has a biological origin, then it can be treated biologically

Answer 79

- The approach is very reductionist - It often doesn’t take into account the influence of people’s environment, their family, childhood experiences or their social situation - other approaches consider these to be very important - research into biology is often socially sensitive - using biology to explain a behaviour can lead to people assigning blame or responsibility for that behaviour onto someone else - as people can’t change their biology, biological explanations can leave people feeling helpless, or not taking responsibility for their behaviour - the approach is also deterministic - ignoring the free will in human behaviour - biological determinism is the idea that all behaviour is controlled by biological forces, such as genes or the nervous system

Answer 80

- Biological psychologists can use brain structure to explain differences in behaviour. Modern approaches use structural brain scans - For example MRI scans: - we can link differences in brain structure to behaviours - Memory (and Biopsychology) - Maguire (2000) found that London taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than controls

Answer 81

- Neurotransmitters are chemical messenger released when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron - some make an impulse in the next neuron more likely - referred to as excitatory neurotransmitters - some make an impulse in the next neuron less likely - referred to as inhibitory neurotransmitters - e.g. Seo et al. (2008) found that high levels of dopamine was linked to aggression and violent behaviour

Answer 82

- hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine glands, such as the pituitary gland - After a signal from the brain, they are secreted into the bloodstream towards their targeted areas - e.g. melatonin is a hormone which controls sleep-wake patterns

Answer 83

Since the mind appears to reside in the brain, all thoughts and feelings and behaviours ultimately have a biological cause (nature). Our genetics, hormones, brain structure and neurotransmitters influence what we do and how we feel.

Answer 84

genes - the passing of characteristics from generation to the next through genes

Answer 85

heredity - he process in which traits are passed down genetically from one generation to the next.

Answer 86

biological structure - an arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

Answer 87

- Human behaviour can be explained in terms of biological factors - e.g. evolution, genetics, hormones and the nervous system - If we can explain behaviour using biological factors then we can also treat it biologically - such as through the use of drugs or surgery - experimental research conducted on animals can inform us about human behaviour - this is because we share a lot of biological similarities with animals

Answer 88

- Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes - Genes carry instructions for a particular characteristics - such as intelligence or tempermant - How these characteristics develop depends on the interactions of the gene with other genes, and the influence of the environment - evolution theory suggests that, through the process of natural selection, specific genes will be selected because the characteristics they produce are adaptive for the current environment - ‘Survivors’ are more able to pass on their genes, meaning that these characteristics will thrive

Answer 89

- A persons genotype is their actual genetic makeup - e.g. the specific genes they have - A persons phenotype is the way that those genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological characteristics - e.g. hair colour, eye colour, temperament etc

Answer 90

- Twin studies - twin and family studies allow researchers to investigate relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences - e.g. if monozygotic (identical) twins who share 100% of their genes, are more concordant in terms of Sz than dizygotic (fraternal) twins who share only 50% of their genes, this suggests that the greater the similarity is due to genetic factors - For example: Twin studies provide research support for a genetic basis to schizophrenia - MZ twins are more concordant for SZ than DZ twins - Joseph 2004, in a meta-analysis calculated that teh pooled concordance rates for all SZ twin studies carried out prior to 2001 - MZ twins = 40.4% - DZ twins = 7.4% - This therefore suggests that the risk of developing Sz is higher the closer the genetic relatedness to a schizophrenic

Answer 91

concordance rate = the percent of cases in which both members of a pair have a particular attribute.

Answer 92

- due to the difficulties of disentangling genetics from environment in twin/family studies, studies where individuals are raised apart are also used - evaluation: supportive evidence - Tienari et al. (2004) - Reviewed 20,000 hospital records reviewed of women in Finish psychiatric hospitals - of these, a sample of 145 ‘adopted away from SZ’ offspring were found (high risk group) and compared to a sample of 158 adoptees without genetic risk (low risk) - of the 303 adoptees, 11 from the high risk group (8%) and 3 from the low risk group (2%) developed SZ - They developed that a genetic link to SZ had been decisively confirmed

Answer 93

- A pioneering approach to understanding human behaviour - The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a dramatic shift in psychological thinking - It suggested new methodical procedures for gathering evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection. For theses observations, Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather than biological, treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety - This approach has led to successful treatments; for example, de Maat et al.’s (2009) large-scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained in the years after treatment

Answer 94

- Scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach - Critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable - However, many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenburg (1996) summarised 2,500 of these studies, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis ‘ compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology’ - Fisher and Greenberg’s support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement adds scientific credibility to psychoanalytic explanations of human behaviour

Answer 95

- psychoanalysis is a gender-biased approach - Freud’s views of women and female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality - despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality. This led psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney, who broke away from Freudian theory, to criticise his work, particularly his views on women and their development - dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic, not only because Freud treated many female patients, but also because his theories are still so influential today

Answer 96

- Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach - Sue and Sue (2008) argues that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures - Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that feeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them in the supportive therapeutic environment. However, they claim that many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way that Western cultures do. In China, for example, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly - This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy

Answer 97

- Psychoanalysis: a comprehensive theory - one of the main strengths of psychoanalysis is the comprehensive nature of the theory - as well as its therapeutic applications, psychoanalysis can be used to explain many other aspects of human behaviour outside of the realm of psychology. For example, psychoanalysis has been used as a form of literary criticism. Works of literature such as Shakespeare’s play Hamlet have repressed messages hidden beneath the surface of the text - many aspects of Hamlet’s psyche are seen as a projection of Shakespeare’s own mind - As a result, we are able to interpret these works using psychoanalytic concepts, delving into the mind of the author or the fictional character and so enrich our understanding or their psychological state

Answer 98

- repression - memories that are too painful or distressing are pushed deep into the unconscious mind - the ego censors the ids impulses and refuses them access into the conscious mind - denial - refusal to accept reality - displacement - redirecting repressed desires and impulses on to a relatively acceptable/ safe target

Answer 99

- intellectualisation - dealing with emotionally threatening experiences by removing emotion - sublimation - transforming unacceptable aggressive and sexual desires into social acceptable behaviour - reaction formation - expressing vires that are actually the opposite of true feelings - regression - reverting back to earlier ‘ages’ and ways of behaving to escape from stressful events

Answer 100

- the psychodynamic approach was a pioneering approach - it was the first which argued that childhood development was important for explaining adult behaviour - this led to the development of new fields of psychology - e.g. developmental psychology - there is also SOME (!) scientific support for aspects of the approach - the psychodynamic approach is not without its critics, who claim that there is no scientific evidence for it - however many claims have been scientifically tested and confirmed - Fisher and Greenberg (1996) - carried out a meta-analysis of 2500 studies testing different aspects of psychoanalysis - found support for the existence of unconscious motivations, as well as the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement - psychoanalysis as a therapy for ‘neurones’ can often be as effective as treatments based on other approaches - overall they argued that the approach compared well to the scientific research of other major approaches - In one nice example, the approach was effective in explaining a phobia when behaviourist therapy was not - Wolpe (1973) attempted (unsuccessfully) to use his method of systematic desensitisation to treat a woman's fear of insects - it turned out that her (estranged) husband had an insect nickname - her ‘fear’ appeared to simply a displacement of her marital problems

Answer 101

- the psychodynamic approach shows androcentrism (a kind of gender bias) - Freuds views of women and female sexuality weren’t anywhere near as developed as his views on male sexuality - Freud did not even suggest the Electra Complex himself, a follower did - this leads to an ‘alpha bias' where the difference between sexes is exaggerated - this ignorance of the differences between male and female sexuality led to many of his supporters distancing themselves from his ideas - for example, the psychoanalyst Karen Horney argued that young females develop “power envy” instead of “penis envy” toward the male - The psychodynamic approach suggests that our behaviours are controlled through psychic determinism - i.e. controlled by unconscious impulses and desires that we have no control over - this denies us free will - this is a depressing view of human behaviour (one that e.g. the humanistic approach rejects) - it also conflicts with our general experience, where we do feel like we have free will - a final limitation is that, despite the presence of some research support (as stated earlier), the psychodynamic approach is regarded as one of the least scientific approaches in psychology e.g. - control - Freud did not believe in the manipulation of an IV when studying human behaviour - falsifiability - without substantial evidence, it is nearly impossible to falsify the theories

Answer 102

- Freud thought that the conflicts which occurred in the phallic stage were the most important for healthy adult personality development: - Oedipus complex - in the phallic sage, little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival in love - their father (the Oedipus complex). Fearing that their father will castrate them, the boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values - Electra complex - girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father - as the penis is the primary love object - and hate their mother (the Electra complex). Although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up their desire for their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process) - In both cases, the process of identification leads to the child taking on the roles and values of the same sex parent. Freud said that this internalised ‘voice’ of the same sex parent was what became the Superego

Answer 103

- identification - boys adopt the values of their father. girls adopt the attitudes and values of their mother - internalisation - the child takes on board the gender identity of the same sex parent - ‘second-hand’ gender

Answer 104

- Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages - they are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important influence in development is the need to express sexual energy, or libido - we usually experience tension/ conflict due to the build up of this energy - pleasure is gained from its discharge - if a child experiences severe problems or excessive pleasure at any stage of development, this leads to fixation, where libido becomes unattached to that stage for years

Answer 105

oral 0-1 mouth sucking and biting bring pleasure. weaning (from bottle or breast) frustration - oral aggressive. hostile and sarcastic. also, smoking. overindulged - oral dependent. gullible

Answer 106

anal 1-3 anus expelling/ faeces bring pleasure. toilet training forms the EGO frustration - anal retentive. stingy, organised, neat. overindulged - anal expulsive. messy.

Answer 107

phallic 3-5 genitals genitals bring pleasure. Oedipus and Electra complex lead to SUPEREGO formation overindulged - phallic personality. vain and narcissistic

Answer 108

latency 6-12 none conflicts and issues from earlier stages are repressed, so most children are unable to remember much of their early years. same sex friendships become main focus. no evidence of fixations

Answer 109

genital puberty onwards genitals genitals bring renewed pleasure. this eventually leads to sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life fixation here is GOOD. genital personality type (well adjusted, mature, able to love and be loved)

Answer 110

- Freud argued that adult personality is set by experiences which occur during childhood. He saw the first 5 years as crucial in determining sexual orientation and other aspects of personality. - Unresolved conflicts will result in the child becoming ‘fixated’ (stuck) in that stage, which will manifest as certain neuroses later in life

Answer 111

All human behaviours can be explained in terms of inner conflict of the mind. The conscious ‘moral’ Super Ego and the unconscious ‘desire driven’ ID, battle between how we should behave. Behaviour is shaped by early childhood experiences, anger and sexual desires

Answer 112

- key childhood experiences influence later personality and emotional development - the conscious mind harbours repressed memories which motivate and influence conscious thoughts and behaviour - unconscious drives called instincts motivate and regulate behaviour, (e.g. the libido, thanatos) - we unconsciously use defence mechanisms to protect ourselves from painful, stressful or difficult experiences, (e.g. repression, regression, sublimation, denial, displacement)

Answer 113

- conscious mind - the part of the mind that we are aware of is only ‘the tip of the iceberg’ - preconscious mind - the thoughts and ideas bubbling just under the surface - appear in our dreams or in parapraxes - unconscious mind - a vast store of drivers and instincts that influence our behaviour. Includes disturbing thoughts and repressed memories

Answer 114

1. free association 2. study of parapraxes (Freudian slips) 3. dream analysis 4. transference

Answer 115

- the mind is like an iceberg - and the subconscious has a significant influence on behaviour - personality consists of these three components which determine our behaviour - early childhood experiences have an impact on later adult behaviour - children pass through a series of psychosexual stages. If a child becomes fixated at any stage, it can affect their later behaviour

Answer 116

- Links to economic development - research suggests that Maslow’s hierarchy may have relevance on a much larger stage than individual growth - Hagerty (1999) looked at the relationship between economic growth and measures of Maslow’s levels in 88 countries over a 34-year period. Countries in the early stages of economic development were characterised by lower level needs (e.g. physiological needs such as access to food and safety needs) - As would be predicted by Maslow's model. it was only in the advanced stages of economic development that self-actualisation became important (e.g. using levels of educational enrolment as a measure of propels desires to better themselves)

Answer 117

- Research support for conditions of worth - research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Rogers’ view - individuals who experience conditional positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self behaviour’ - doing things to meet others’ expectations even when they clash with their own values. Halter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves - consistent with Rogers predictions, adolescents who created a ‘false self ’ pretending to be the kind of person his or her parents would love, were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their true self

Answer 118

- Humanistic research methods do not establish causality - evaluating the humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish a casual relationship between variables - Rogers in particular was an advocate of non-experimental research methods arguing that the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling. Most psychologists would argue that, without experimental evidence, evaluation of a therapy, or the theory that underlies it becomes very difficult - Although some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling, these do not show that the therapy caused the changes, a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology

Answer 119

- The humanistic approach is unrealistic - Humanistic psychology represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature - critics argue that people are not as inherently good and ‘growth oriented’ as humanistic theorists suggest, and the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that peoples capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification, as is the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation - This suggests that encouraging people to focus on their own self-development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society

Answer 120

- Cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs - In a later development to his theory Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent altogether - This is borne out by cross-cultural evidence. For example, a study carried out in Chia (Nevis, 1983) found that belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development - consistent with this view, many studies have confirmed that Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining their self-concept whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships

Answer 121

strengths: - Maslow's hierarchy has face validity - validity is the extent to which a test/ theory actually measures or describes what it is trying to measure - face validity is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept it purports to measure - in other words… ‘does it look ok?’! - this is a weak test of validity, but can explain why some concepts become popular - e.g. may explain why the hierarchy is widely applied to business - Ideas of the humanistic approach have had useful applications in modern therapy - many current therapies use ideas from Client Centred Therapy - e.g. having a warm and empathetic environment, active listening and displaying unconditional positive regard for the client - this is often an effective form of therapy for less serious psychological problems - BUT… it is less effective for more severe ones such as psychosis - One strength of the humanistic approach is that it takes an optimistic view on human behaviour - giving humans free will, and arguing that they are innately positive and motivated to self-actualise - this contrasts with more the depressing, pessimistic theories of some other approaches - HOWEVER, as a result the approach has been accused of a lack of realism - critics argue that people are not all inherently good and ‘growth-oriented’ as humanist theorists suggest - the approach ignores peoples capacity for pessimism and self destructive behaviour

Answer 122

limitations: - The humanistic approach is very unscientific - it does not believe in testing people or groups scientifically (Rogers rejected turning people into “lab rats”) - it takes a totally idiographic, rather than a nomothetic approach - Rogers argued taht the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling - however, without experimental evidence, evaluating a therapy, or its underlying theory becomes very difficult - most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish causal relationship

Answer 123

- The self - Our self-concept refers to how we perceive ourselves as a person - Rogers (1951) - We have two basic needs: - positive regard from others - a feeling of self-worth (what we think about ourselves) - Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood and are formed as a result of a child’s interaction with their parents - further interactions with significant others also contribute to our self worth - Rogers believed that our feelings of self-worth are important in determining our psychological health

Answer 124

- Congruence - When there is a similarity between a person’s ideal self and how they perceive themselves in real life, the person is in a state of congruence - When there is a difference, the person experiences a state of incongruence - The closer our self image and ideal self are to each other, the greater our sense of self worth - however, it is very rare for a complete state of congruence to exist - most people experience some degree of incongruence

Answer 125

- conditions of worth - while people can assist in the achievement of self-actualisation, Rogers believed that they more often hinder it - the belief is based around the love/belonging need of Maslow’s hierarchy - the love can be unconditional (unconditional positive regard) - It is given when a person is accepted for who they are or what they do - or conditional - when the person does what other people tell them to do - when people experience conditional regard they develop conditions of worth - the conditions they perceive that significant others put on them in order to be accepted by others and see themselves in a positive manner

Answer 126

- The influence on Counselling Psychology - Rogers (1959) claimed that a person’s problems were a direct result of their conditions of worth - He believed that, with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways - Rogers‘ client centred therapy is an important form of modern day psychology - Rogers referred to those therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert of their own condition - this, therapy is non directive - the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmospheres taht is warm, supportive and non judgemental - For Rogers, an effective therapist should provide the client with three things: - genuineness - empathy - unconditional positive regard - the aim of Rogers therapy is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce levels of incongruence, and help the person become a more fully functional person

Answer 127

This approach is often named as ‘Positive Psychology’. It is concerned with topics that are meaningful to human being's and emphasis the importance of the individuals striving towards personal growth and accomplishment. Individuals have complete free will over their thoughts and actions Humanistic - refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and to love, and have the power to direct their own lives

Answer 128

- Free Will - All of the approaches considered so far are, at least to some degree, deterministic - they suggest that one cause will always have the same effect and that laws can be made about human behaviour (nomothetic) - Humanism places the emphasis of human behaviour on an individuals ability to feely choose their behaviour - each person is treated as an unique individual - while we are not completely free (we are bound by forces such as biological and societal influences) we are able to make significant personal choices within those constraints

Answer 129

- An idiographic approach - all this makes us unique individuals, and so we should only be studied as such - an idiographic approach

Answer 130

- A holistic approach - it is inappropriate to use a reductionist, scientific approach to study human behaviour as it is dehumanising to treat them like lab rats - need for holistic view of the whole person

Answer 131

- Maslow’s Theory (1943) - a positive approach - unlike psychoanalysts, Maslow was not concerned with what went wrong with people, but rather he was interested in finding out what could go right with them - his theory emphasised the importance of personal growth and fulfilment - this opened the door for later movements in psychology, such as positive psychology and the understanding of happiness

Answer 132

- The Hierarchy of needs - Maslow did not include the visualisation of a pyramid in his original theory, although the hierarchy of needs is usually expressed that way - the most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid, and the most advanced needs are at the top - each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up the hierarchy - according to Maslow, the more basic need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the harder it is to ignore

Answer 133

- Self-Actualisation - according to Maslow, most people who attained this level share certain characteristics: - creativity - accepting of other people - accurate perception of the world around - the individual feels able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions

Answer 134

- One limitation of the hierarchy is that it may be ethnocentric - it may ignore cultural differences - Nevis (1983) - studied the concept of Maslow's hierarchy in China - he found that love/belonging needs were seen as much more fundamental than psychological needs - self actualisation also celebrates individual success, whereas other cultures define success more in terms of the group

Answer 135

self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development

Answer 136

- Is psychology scientific? - psychology is often referred to as the ‘science of behaviour’ - psychologists have adopted the scientific method as the most appropriate way of studying human behaviour - however, because psychology lies at the intersection of many other different disciplines, such as biology, philosophy and sociology, the application of scientific method is not universal across the subject

Answer 137

- Behaviourism and the SLT - Behaviourism’s commitment to the scientific method is highly positive - it focuses only on aspects of behaviour that can be measured and the research is easily replicable - SLT also demonstrates a positive commitment to the scientific method - the research is highly controlled - however, this does result in a reduction in validity

Answer 138

- Cognitive and Biological Approaches - cognitive psychology is mostly positive with regards to the scientific method, as most propositions can be easily tested - however, mental processes ae largely unobservable, making the application of scientific method very difficult - most conclusions are based on inferences as a result - biological psychology’s commitment to the scientific method is highly positive - the theories are easy to trust and replicate - the conclusions are based on very string empirical evidence

Answer 139

- Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches - psychodynamic psychology’s approach to the scientific method is mostly negative - while some psychologists try to use empirical methods, the predominant method used is the highly subjective case study - humanistic psychology argues that the scientific method only applies to the natural sciences - It is not appropriate for studying the complexities of the human consciousness and experience - they also reject experimental methods as dehumanising - arguing that they treat us as lab rates rather than unique individuals

Answer 140

- Nature vs Nurture - Human behaviour is either the product of a person’s genes and biology (nature) or what they experience as a result of interacting with the environment (nurture) - It is rare that behaviour is entirely one or the other alone - More usually, the question of ‘nature and nurture’ lies in looking at the way they interact with each other

Answer 141

- Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory - Behaviourism falls on the side of Nurture - our behaviour is a consequence of our interactions with the environment and the consequences of our behaviour within that environment - SLT falls primarily with Nurture - people learn as a result of observing others - However, it is assumed that the capacity to learn from an observation of others has an adaptive value, making it more likely to be innate (nature)

Answer 142

- Cognitive and Biological Approaches - The cognitive approach assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - thought processes that control our behaviour may be a product of innate factors or our experiences - The biological approach is primarily based around nature - biological systems such as the CNS and the endocrine system are the product of innate factors

Answer 143

- Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches - The psychodynamic approach assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - unconscious drives and conflicts are considered an innate (nature) part of our personality - however, how we cope with these is mostly a product of our upbringing (nurture) - The humanistic approach also assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - our drive to self-actualise is considered an innate behaviour (nature), but our problems achieving this are a result of our experiences and upbringing (nurture) - e.g. conditional positive regard and conditions of worth

Answer 144

- What is determinism? - determinism refers to the specific causes of a behaviour - whether they are internal or external - whether they are within our control or not - the majority of approaches represent a determinist view - they see behaviour as being determined by forces outside of conscious control - free will is used to refer to the alternative end of the spectrum - behaviour is the result of self-determination

Answer 145

- Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory - while behaviourism and social learning focus on the learning of behaviour, we will consider them as separate approaches - behaviourism suggests that behaviour is determined by external forces in the environment - e.g. rewards, punishment and association - social learning theory suggests that behaviour is determined by observation and imitation of role models (vicarious reinforcement) - although we still have to make a conscious choice as to whether we imitate them

Answer 146

- Cognitive and Biological Approaches - The cognitive approach assumes that our behaviour is determined by our own thought processes - suggesting we have a degree of control over our behaviour - The biological approach suggests that our behaviour is determined by physiological (neurochemicals and hormones) and inherited (genes) factors - both of which are outside of our control

Answer 147

- Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches - The psychodynamic approach suggests that our behaviour is the result of unconscious factors - These are largely unknown to us, therefore beyond our conscious control - examples include the often referred to ‘Freudian slip’ - The humanistic approach emphasises the importance of free will on our behaviour - Therefore we are in full control of our actions

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