1
Q
What is the experimental method?
A
Experimental method - involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
2
Q
What is an aim?
A
Aim - the purpose of a study - statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - always written in present tense
3
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
Hypothesis - a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study
4
Q
What is a variable?
A
variables - any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another
5
Q
What is an Independent variable?
A
IV - some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated (changed) by the researched, or changes naturally, so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured
6
Q
What is a dependent variable?
A
DV - the variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change to IV.
7
Q
What is operationalism?
A
Operationalism - clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
8
Q
what is debriefing?
A
Debriefing - a post- research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures of the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing with ethical issues
9
Q
what are ethical issues?
A
Ethical issues - concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study.
10
Q
what is informed consent?
A
Informed consent - participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate
11
Q
what do you need to include when writing a hypothesis?
A
- writing a hypothesis
- Identify both conditions of the independent variable and the dependent variable
- explain how we would operationalise (turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations - is useful in making experiment replicable) these variables
- explain how you think the IV will impact the DV
- e.g. want to find out whether boys or girls watch more tv
- IV - boy or girl - female and male students aged 12-13 years
- DV - how much they watch - in hours
- I think that women will watch more tv than boys do
12
Q
what is a directional hypothesis?
A
directional hypothesis - states the kind (or direction) of difference or relationship expected between two conditions or groups of participants e.g. increased study time will lead to better exam results from students
13
Q
what is a non directional hypothesis?
A
- non directional hypothesis - states that there will be difference between the conditions, but doesn’t predict the direction e.g. there is a difference between work produced in quite and noisy conditions
- usually used when there is no previous research done
14
Q
what is a null hypothesis?
A
null hypothesis - the opposite of an alternative/ experimental hypothesis. Its when you predict that there is no difference or association between the variables that you are studying. In psych research is conducted to try to prove this hypothesis wrong
15
Q
what is an alternative hypothesis?
A
alternative hypothesis - an opposing theory to another hypothesis - umbrella term for directional and non directional hypothesis
16
Q
what is an experimental hypothesis?
A
experimental hypothesis - predicts the changes that will take place in the DV when the IV is changes
17
Q
What is a confederate?
A
Confederate - an individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave as a participant
18
Q
What is a piolet study?
A
- Pilot study - a small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view of making improvements
- note any results of a pilot study are irrelevant
19
Q
what is an extraneous variable?
A
Types of experiment and extraneous variables:
- extraneous variable - a variable that does not vary systematically with the independent variable but may have an effect on the dependent variable - any variable other than the IV taht may have an affect on DV if not controlled
- They are variables that might affect the dependent variable and so need to be controlled
20
Q
what is a confounding variable?
A
- confounding variable - any variable other than IV that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. They vary systematically with the IV
- they are variables that were not controlled in the study and so have affected the results
21
Q
what are demand characteristics?
A
demand characteristics - any cue from the researcher or from the research situation taht may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participants changing their behaviour within the research situation
22
Q
what is randomisation?
A
randomisation - the use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions
23
Q
what is standardisation?
A
standardisation - using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
24
Q
what are investigator effects?
A
- Investigator effects - occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting.
- This can be done in several ways:
25
what is external validity?
external validity - the degree to which a research finding can be generalised; to other settings (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validity); over time (historical validity)
26
what is internal validity?
Internal validity - the degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/ extraneous variables
27
what is mundane realism?
mundane realism - refers to how a study mirrors the real world. The research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world.
28
what is experimental design?
Experimental design - the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
29
what is random allocation?
Random allocation - an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
30
what is counterbalancing?
- Counterbalancing - an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
- there are two ways to counterbalance order effects:
1. AB or BA
- divide participants into two groups
- group 1: each participant does A then B
- group 2: each participant does B then A
- still a repeated measures design even though there are two groups of participants, because comparison will be made for each participant on their performance on the two conditions (morning and afternoon)
2. ABBA
- all participants take part in each condition twice
- trial 1: condition A (morning)
- trial 2: condition B (afternoon)
- trial 3: condition B (afternoon)
- trial 4: condition A (morning)
- compare scores on trials 1 and 4 with trials 2 and 3 - as before also still a repeated measures design
31
What is independent groups design?
Independent Groups Design - participants are placed in separate (independent) groups. Each group does one level of the IV; for example:
- Group A does the task with the TV on (one level of the IV)
- Group B does the task with no TV (the other level of the IV)
We compare the performance (DV) of the two groups
32
what are the advantages of independent groups design?
Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only. If a person is involved in several conditions, they may become bored, tired, and fed up by the time they come to the second condition or become wise to the requirements of the experiment!
33
what are the disadvantages of independent groups design?
The researcher cannot control the effects of participant variables (i.e. the different abilities or characteristics of each participant). For example, participants in Group A might happen to have better memories than those in group B. This would act as a confounding variable.
Independent groups design needs more participants than repeated measures design in order to end up with the same amount of data.
Method of dealing with limitation:
Randomly allocate participants to conditions which (theoretically) distribute participants variables evenly.
Random allocation can be done by putting the participants names in a hat and drawing out the names so that every other person goes in Group A
34
what are matched groups?
Matched Pairs - A compromise is to use two groups of participants but match participants on key characteristics believed to affect performance on the DV (e.g. IQ or time spent watching TV).
Then one member of the pair is allocated to Group A and the other to Group B. The procedure is then the same as for independent groups.
It is important to realise that the characteristics for matching must be relevant to the study. In other words you wouldn’t need to match participants on gender if you were testing memory - unless there was some evidence that gender was a potential confounding variable
35
what are the advantages of matched pairs?
Reduces participant variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics.
It avoids order effects, so counterbalancing is not necessary.
36
what are the disadvantages of matched pairs?
It is very time-consuming and difficult to match participants on key variables. The researcher probably has to start with a large group of participants to ensure they can obtain matched pairs on key variables.
It is not possible to control all participant variables because you can only match on variables known to be relevant, but it could be that others are important. For example, in a memory experiment you might match on memory abilities but later find that some of the participants have been involved in a teaching programme to boost memory skills and you should have matched on this.
Methods of dealing with the limitations:
Restrict the number of variables to match on to make it easier.
Conduct a piolet study to consider key variables taht might be important when matching.
37
what is the repeated measures design?
Repeated Measures Design - All participants receive all levels of the IV; for example;
- each participant does the task with the TV on, e.g. does a memory test
- then, perhaps a week later, each participant does a similar test without the TV on
We compare the performance (DV) of the participant on the two tests
38
what are the advantages of repeated measures design?
As the same participants are used in each condition, participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced.
Fewer people are needed as they participate in all conditions (i.e., saves time).
39
what are the disadvantages of repeated measures design?
The order of the conditions may affect performance (an order effect). For example, participants may do better on the second test because of a practice effect or because they are less anxious. Alternatively, in some situations participants may do worse on the second test because of being bored with doing the same test again (boredom effect )
When participants do the second test they may guess the purpose of the experiment, which may affect their behaviour. For example, some participants may purposely do worse on the second tests because they want it to appear as if they work less well in the afternoon
methods for dealing with limitations:
Researchers may use two different tests to reduce a practice effect - though the two tests must be equivalent. This can be done by constructing a test of, say, 40 items and randomly allocating items to Test A and Test B.
The main way that order effects are dealt with is using counterbalancing.
In order to avoid guessing the aims of a study, a cover story can be presented about the purpose of the test.
40
What are the 4 types of experiments?
- laboratory experiment
- natural experiment
- field experiment
- quasi experiment
41
What is a lab experiment?
Laboratory experiment - an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
42
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment?
- High internal validity because extraneous variables can be controlled. This means that we can be confident that any observed change in the DV is due to the IV.
- reliable
- Participants usually aware that their behaviour is being studied. This leads participants to search for cues about the aims of the experiment and may affect the participants’ behaviour, reducing ‘realness’ (ecological validity)
- The IV or DV may be operationalised in such as way that it doesn't represent everyday experiences i.e. it is low in mundane realism
- Low ecological validity can be experienced in terms of setting. Participants may feel uncomfortable in an unknown and artificial environment. This means they may not behave as they usually would.
43
What is a field experiment?
Field Experiments - an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
44
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment?
- Participants are not likely to be aware that their behaviour is being studied. This means they don’t respond to demand characteristics and therefore their behaviour may be more ‘natural’
- A field experiment takes place in a more natural setting, so participants can be more relaxed
- Many issues with lab experiments are the same for field experiments - may lack mundane realism - therefore not necessarily more like everyday life than lab experiments
- It is more difficult to control extraneous variables
- There is a major ethical issue - difficult to debrief participants if they don't know that they are being studied
- more time consuming than lab experiments
45
What is a natural experiment?
Natural Experiment - an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not have been there. The researcher records the effect of the DV
46
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment?
- allows opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons, such as the studies of institutionalised Romanian orphans
- high external validity, involve the study of real life issues and problems as they happen
- naturally occurring event may happen verry rarely, reducing opportunities for research
- participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (this only applies when there is an independent groups design). This means the researcher might be less sure whether the IV affected the DV
47
What is a quasi experiment?
Quasi-experiment - a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
48
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a quasi experiment?
- often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share the strengths of a lab experiment
- like natural experiments, cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore may be confounding variables
- no manipulation of the IV - this means we cannot say for certain that the change measured in the DV was due to the IV (what do we call this?)
- unique participant characteristics - the sample could have unique characteristics meaning we can’t generalise the findings to other group of people (we call this low ecological or population validity)
49
what are the ways of dealing with extraneous variables in a lab or field experiment?
- single blind design - in this design, the participant is not aware of the research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving
- ‘double blind design - in this design, the participant and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aim/hypothesis
- experimental realism - if the researcher makes the task sufficiently engaging, the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact taht they are being observed
50
What is a participant variable?
any characteristic or aspect of a participant's background that could affect study results, even though it's not the focus of an experiment. Participant variables can include sex, gender identity, age, educational attainment, marital status, religious affiliation, etc.
51
What are situational variables?
Features of an environement that affect the degree to which individuals yield to group pressures. Such as the presence of authority figures, group dynamics, social norms, and situational ambiguity.
52
What is validity?
validity - are we measuring what we intend to?
53
What is mundane realism?
mundane realism - degree to which a procedure is similar to events taht occur in the real world
54
What is ecological validity
ecological validity - specific type of external validity, how generalisable are experiments to the real world
55
What are the ways of dealing with extraneous variables in a lab or field experiment?
- single blind design - in this design, the participant is not aware of the research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving
- ‘double blind design - in this design, the participant and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aim/hypothesis
- experimental realism - if the researcher makes the task sufficiently engaging, the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact taht they are being observed
56
What is a sample?
- Sample - a selection of a subset within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population
- we attempt to collect samples that are representative of the whole population. In psychology, we have 5 main sampling methods.
57
What is meant by ‘target population’?
Target population - every member of the group that the investigator plans to study
58
What are the 5 methods of sampling?
Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Opportunity Sampling
Volunteer Sampling
Stratified Sampling
59
What is random sampling and what are its strengths and limitations?
1. Random Sampling
- each member of the target population has a mathematically equal chance of being in the experiments sample
- uses a full list of entire target population, all names are put into container or computer system, names pulled/ randomly selected
- strengths - a random sample avoids researcher bias as it’s not a choice as to who’s in the sample
- limitations - need to have a list of all available members of the population you wish to study, which could take time. By chance, the sample could be unrepresentative of the whole population
60
What is systematic sampling and what are its strengths and limitations?
2. Systematic Sampling
- participants are chosen from a list of the target population. Every Nth participant is chosen to form the sample (every 5th or 10th or 100th name on the list)
- strengths - avoids researcher bias as researchers can’t choose their sample. If there is an existing list of names (like a school or Uni) can be a quick way of sampling
- limitations - by chance the method can produce an unrepresentative sample. If target population is large, can be difficult to obtain names
61
What is opportunity sampling and what are its strengths and limitations?
3. Opportunity Sampling
- the researcher directly asks available members of the target population to take part in the research. This is likely to be individuals the researcher has easy access to and is familiar with. Any individuals who agree to take part are added until the target number is reached
- strengths - not time consuming at all, therefore low cost as well. use first available participants you can
- limitations - researcher decides who to ask so it could lead to researcher bias. opportunity samples are unlikely to be representative
62
What is volunteer sampling and what are its strengths and limitations?
4. volunteer Sampling
- Also known as a self-selecting sample, participants offer to take part after finding out about the research (they are not directly asked by the researcher). This is likely after seeing an advert in a newspaper or online
- strengths - advertising for participants can reach a wide range of people (social media). easiest sample to collect as they are self selecting
- limitations - chance sample collected have volunteer bias. The type of people likely to volunteer may be different to the target population
63
What is stratified sampling and what are its strengths and limitations?
5. Stratified Sampling
- By selecting from within strata, the characteristics of participants within the sample are in the same proportion as found within the target population
- strengths - sample is representative of the larger target population, meaning results should be generalisable. participants randomly chosen from each stratum meaning it avoids researcher bias
- limitations - not every possible characteristic can be included in a stratified sample. Researcher chooses the stratum, which could lead to bias. Can be time consuming to identify stratum
64
What is meant by ‘random’ and what random techniques are there?
random - each item in a population has an equal chance of being selected. There are various random techniques that are used to obtain a random sample (or also to achieve random allocation of participants to groups)
- the lottery method
- random number table
- random number generator
65
How is the lottery method used for random techniques?
- The lottery method:
- easiest method - drawing names or numbers ‘out of a hat’
1. obtain a list of all the people in the population. this may simply be the names of all the people in your school
2. put all the names in a lottery barrel or hat
3. select the number of names required
66
How is the random number table used for random techniques?
- Random number table
- printed table of random numbers
1. this time every member of the population is given a number
2. the starting position in the table is determined blindly by placing your finger anywhere
3. If your population is less than 100 you only need two digit numbers so read the table two digits at a time
67
How are random number generators used for random techniques?
- Random number generators
- calculators have functions that generate random numbers as do computers and apps on phones
1. Number every member of the population
2. using, for example., Microsoft Excel type =RAND(100) to get a random number between 1 and 100
68
Explain the difference between a population and a sample.
A population is the group of people that a researcher is interested in - the group of people from which the sample is drawn. A sample is a selection of people from a population.
69
What is the definition of ethical issue?
Ethical issue - These arise when there is conflict between the rights of the participant and the goal to produce authentic results.
70
What is the BPS code of ethics and what are the 4 principles of the most recent (2009) code?
- BPS code of ethics - A document which instructs psychologists what is and isn't acceptable when dealing with human participants in research.
- This Code is based on four ethical Principles, which constitute the main domains of responsibility, within which ethical issues are considered. These have been agreed after many years of consultation within and outside the profession. The manner in which they apply and the contexts that they apply in will inevitably change over time.
1. Respect - for the dignity and worth of all persons. This includes standards of privacy and confidentiality and informed consent. Intentional deception (lack of informed consent) is only acceptable when it is necessary to protect the integrity of research and when the deception is disclosed to participants at the earliest opportunity. One way to judge acceptability is to consider whether participants are likely to object or show unease when debriefed. Participants should be aware of the right to withdraw from the research at any time
2. Competence - psychologists should maintain high standards in their professional work
3. responsibility - psychologists have a responsibility to their clients, to the general public and to the science of psychology. This includes protecting participants from psychological harm as well as debriefing at the conclusion of their participation
4. integrity - psychologists should be honest and accurate. This includes reporting the findings of any research accurately and acknowledging bringing instances of misconduct by other psychologists to the attention of the BPS
71
What is informed consent?
What are the ways of dealing with informed consent?
Informed Consent - making participants aware of the aims, procedure and their rights before the study goes ahead
- all participants should sign a consent form
- parental consent for those under 16
- presumptive consent
- retrospective consent
- prior general consent
72
What is deception?
What are the ways of dealing with deception?
Deception - deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants. This makes informed consent impossible
- debrief participants at the end (inform them what happened, what their data will be used for and allow opportunity to withdraw results)
73
What is protection from harm?
What are the ways of dealing with protection from harm?
Protection from harm - participants should not be placed at any more risk than normal daily life - this includes embarrassment/ stress
- reassure participants that their behaviour was normal
- offer counselling if effects are extreme
- follow up
74
What is privacy and confidentiality?
What are the ways of dealing with privacy and confidentiality?
Privacy and confidentiality - this is in line with data protection laws which is the right to have personal data protected
- maintain anonymity - don’t record names - use numbers
- don’t share data with other researchers
75
What is meant by the right to withdraw?
right to withdraw - participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they protected
76
What is presumptive consent?
presumptive consent - if you can’t ask your participants if they are happy to take part in the study, you ask similar people if they would be. If they agree, you presume your real participants would agree too
77
What is retrospective consent?
retrospective consent - if you cant get informed consent at the beginning of the study, you ask them at the end and as them whether they agree to be a participant
78
What is prior general consent?
prior general consent - you tell people that you may be studying them at different times, ask if they generally agree to be a participant
79
What are consent forms and what do they include?
- consent forms - consent forms are given to each participants for every study, which states…
- the purpose if the study
- an outline of what happens during the study and what happens to participants to participants results
- the length of time needed to complete the study
- informing the participants they have the right to withdraw
- informing participants they are available for medical supervision and protection from harm (psychological and physiological)
- consent forms may also include tick boxes where participants have to ensure that:
- they understood and read the consent form
- they have asked any questions they wished too
- they understand they have the right to withdraw
- they consent to participate
80
What is a debrief sheet and what does it include?
- This is an important way of dealing with deception and reminding participants of their other ethical rights. It should be written so that it can be read out to the participant and include:
- True aim of the study
- If an independent groups design has been used, there should be an outline of
both conditions of the study. Otherwise, an outline of the study should be given.
- Ask the participants if they have any questions and if so who they can address
these to
- Relevant ethical considerations e.g. remind them of their right to withdraw,
privacy, confidentiality etc.
- Offer someone that they can talk to if their distressed
- Thank the participants for taking part
81
What are the strengths and limitations of observational studies?
Strengths
- Observational studies have high validity: they record what people actually do rather than what they say they do.
- Observations may capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour.
- Observations are often used as a way to measure the DV in an experiment and therefore are a fundamental method of gathering data.
Limitations
- There is the serious issue of observer bias. It is difficult to be objective when making observations because what people observe is distorted by their expectations of what is likely or what they would hope to see. Using more than one observer may reduce the risk of observer bias affecting the validity of the observations.
- Only observable behaviour is recorded and not information about what people think or feel.
- Therefore data from observations must be interpreted carefully.
82
What is naturalistic and controlled observation?
- **Naturalistic and controlled observation**
- In a naturalistic observation, behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything
has been left as it is normally. In other words the researcher does not interfere in any way with what is happening. Examples might include watching an infant playing in their normal (ie. 'natural) environment. This might be a nursery school if that is an environment that the infant is used to. Observing an animal in a zoo could be considered a naturalistic observation because the environment is normal to them.
- In a controlled observation, some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher, reducing the naturalness' of the environment and, most importantly, the naturalness of the behaviour being studied. Participants are likely to know they are being studied and the study may be conducted in a laboratory.
- A controlled observation allows the researcher to investigate the effects of certain things
on behaviour, for example in Bandura's study of social learning theory (see left) various toys were present to see how the children would interact with these (note that this study was an experiment and observation was used to assess the dependent variable). Such things are not the same as independent variables unless another group of participants had a different set of toys as a comparison.
83
What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic and controlled observation?
Strengths
- Naturalistic observation gives a realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour
- Therefore, it is likely to be high in ecological validity (though this may be less so if participants know they are being observed).
- In a controlled observation an observer can focus on particular aspects of behaviour.
Limitations
- In a naturalistic observation there is little control of all the other things that are happening, which may mean that something unknown to the observer may account for the behaviour observed.
- In a controlled observation the control comes at the cost of the environment feeling unnatural and participants' behaviour also being less natural as a result.
- Therefore there is a trade-off between ecological validity and control.
84
What is overt and covert observation?
- **Overt and covert observation**
- In both naturalistic and controlled observations the person being observed may be aware of the observations. This is called an overt observation. Since this is likely to have an effect. on the naturalness of participants' behaviour, observers try to be as unobtrusive as possible. They may even use one-way mirrors so they are hidden from view - but the study would still be classed as overt if participants knew beforehand that they were being observed.
- In a covert observation participants do not have any knowledge of being observed, at least not before or during the study. They may be informed afterwards.
85
What are the strengths and weaknesses of overt and covert observation?
Strengths
- In covert observations participants are unaware of being observed and thus their behaviour is more natural.
Limitations
- For overt observations participants are aware of being studied which may affect the naturalness of their behaviour - they may respond to demand characteristics.
In covert observation, there are important ethical issues - it is acceptable
to observe people in a public place as long as the behaviours being observed are not private ones, such as kissing your boyfriend.
Covertly observed participants by definition cannot give consent, although it may be possible to seek retrospective consent.
Both methods have contrasting strengths and limitations.
86
What is participant and non-participant observation?
- **Participant and non-participant observation**
- In most cases an observer is merely watching (or listening to) the behaviour of others and acts as a non-participant. The observer observes from a distance and does not interact with the people being observed.
- The alternative is participant observation. In this case the observer is part of the group being observed. In both covert and overt observations the observer may be a participant, unbeknown to the people being observed.
87
What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant and non-participant observation?
Strengths
- Participant observation may provide special insights into behaviour from the 'inside' that may not otherwise be gained.
- In non-participant observation observers are likely to be more objective because they are not part of the group being observed.
Limitations
- Participant observation is more likely to be overt and thus have issues of participant awareness.
- Non-participant observation is more likely to be covert and then there are ethical issues, as discussed above.
- Researchers therefore need to weigh up these strengths and limitations when designing observational research.
88
What is reliability?
reliability - a measure of consistency. It refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used - used for measuring mental health issues and personality
89
What is internal reliability?
- internal reliability - describes the internal consistency of a measure (consistency within itself)
- for example, whether the different questions (or ‘items’) in a questionnaire are all measuring the same thing
90
What is external reliability?
external reliability - measures how consistently a test produces similar results over repeated administrations or under different conditions. It ensures that a test is stable over time and situations
91
How can you test for external reliability?
- we can test for external reliability using two methods: test re-test and inter-rater reliability
- test re-test measures how well a test remains stable over repeated uses
- inter-rater reliability tests whether different raters (or observers) record the same data based on the protocol of the study
92
What is the likert scale?
likert scale - rating system, used in questionnaires, allows us to rank participants
93
What is acquiescence bias?
acquiescence bias - also known as agreement bias, the tendency for survey respondents to agree with research statements, without the action of being a true reflection of their own position or question itself
94
What are the strengths and limitations of self report techniques?
Strengths:
- The key strength is that all self-report techniques allow access to what people think and feel, to their experiences and attitudes.
limitations:
- People may not supply truthful answers. It's not that people deliberately lie, but they may simply answer in a socially desirable way (called a social desirability bias). For example, if asked whether you are a leader or a follower, many people would prefer not to class themselves as a follower even if they are.
- People sometimes simply don't know what they think or feel, so they may make their answer up, and thus their answers lack validity.
- The sample of people used in any study using self-report may lack
representativeness and thus the data collected cannot be generalised.
- Despite these limitations, self-report techniques are an important way of gathering information about people's thoughts, attitudes and experiences.
95
What is a questionnaire?
Questionnaire - a set of written questions. It is designed to collect information about a topic or topics. They permit a researcher to discover what people think and feel. They can be objective and scientific. They are always pre-determined
96
What are the strengths and limitations of questionnaire?
Strengths:
- Once designed and tested, questionnaires can be distributed to large numbers of people relatively cheaply and quickly. This enables a researcher to collect data from a large sample of people.
- Respondents may be more willing to give personal information in a questionnaire than in an interview, where they may feel self-conscious and more cautious.
Limitations:
- Questionnaires are only filled in by people who can read and write and have the time to fill them in. This means that the sample is biased.
- Therefore, although questionnaires are a powerful way of gathering a large amount of information, issues of design, distribution and bias need to be thought through carefully.
97
What is a structured interview?
Structured Interview - predetermined questions, questionnaire delivered face to face or over the telephone - no deviation from the original questions - conducted in real time
98
What are the strengths and limitations of a structured interview?
Strengths:
- The main strength of a structured interview (as well as a questionnaire) is that it can be easily repeated because the questions are standardised. This means answers from different people can be compared.
- This also means that they are easier to analyse than an unstructured interview because answers are more predictable.
Limitations:
- Comparability may be a problem in a structured interview (but not a
questionnaire) if the same interviewer behaves differently on different occasions or different interviewers behave differently (low reliability).
- A limitation of both structured and unstructured interviews is that the interviewer's expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives (a form of investigator effect called interviewer bias).
- The many benefits of structured interviews therefore depend on having skilled interviewers and avoiding interviewer bias as far as possible.
99
What is an unstructured interview?
Unstructured Interview - new questions are constantly developed during the course of the interview - interviewer may begin with some general aims and possibly a few pre-determined questions but subsequent questions develop on the basis of the answers that are given - sometimes called a clinical interview
100
What are the strengths and limitations of unstructured interviews?
Strengths:
- More detailed information can generally be obtained from each respondent than in a structured interview. This is because the interviewer tailors further questions to the specific responses.
Limitations:
- Unstructured interviews require interviewers with more skill than a structured interview because the interviewer has to develop new questions on the spot. The requirement for well-trained interviewers makes unstructured interviews more expensive to produce compared with structured interviews.
- Such in-depth questions may be more likely to lack objectivity than predetermined ones because of their instantaneous nature, with no time for the interviewer to reflect on what to say.
- Therefore, while unstructured interviews allow researchers to gain deeper insights into the respondent's feelings and thoughts, there are issues of objectivity and cost to consider.
101
What is the best way to record an interview?
An interviewer may take notes throughout the interview to document answers. However, this is likely to interfere with their listening skills, and potentially make the participant feel a sense of evaluation because the interviewer may not write everything down and then the respondent feels that what they said was not valuable. This could lead to social desirability bias or demand characteristics. Alternatively, interviews may be audio recorded or video recorded.
102
How can the interviewer effect the results of the interview?
- One of the strengths of conducting an interview compared to a questionnaire is that the presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondent’s answers may increase the amount of information provided. This means that the interviewers need to be aware of behaviours that demonstrate their ‘interest.’ This includes:
- Non-verbal communication – various behaviours such as sitting with arms crossed and frowning communicate disapproval and disinterest, whereas
head nodding and leaning forward may encourage the respondent to speak.
- Listening skills – an interviewer needs to know when and how to speak e.g. they should not interrupt too often and when they do speak they should have a range of encouraging comments to show that they are listening.
103
In what type of interview is questioning skills required?
In an unstructured interview, there are special skills to be learned about what kind of follow up questions should be asked. It is important to be aware of the questions already asked avoid repeating them. It is also useful to avoid probing too much, or to ask ‘why?’ too often. It is better to ask more focused questions – both for the interviewee and, also for the analysis of the answers later.
104
What are the three things needed when writing good questionnaire questions?
Analysis, lack of bias, clarity
105
Why is it important that questions in a questionnaire are easy to analyse?
Analysis – questions need to be written so that they are easy to analyse. Closed questions are easiest to analyse, but they may force people to select answers don’t represent their real thoughts or behaviour. Whereas open questions may really represent their real thoughts or behaviour, but because everyone could potentially give a different answer, they are more difficult to analyse.
106
Why is it important that there is a lack of bias when writing good questionnaire questions?
Bias – questions should be free of bias. This is because any bias in a question could lead the respondent to be more likely to give a particular answer (a leading question or emotive language). The greatest problem is social desirability bias as participants may give answers to make themselves look more attractive, nicer, more generous etc. rather than being truthful.
107
Why is it important that questions should be clear and unambiguous?
Clarity - questions should be clear and unambiguous i.e. they should be written in a way that the respondent understands what is being asked (i.e. do
not overuse jargon). The use of double negatives reduces clarity (e.g. Are you against banning capital punishment?), as do double barrelled questions (e.g.
Do you suffer from sickness and headaches?)
108
What makes a good questionnaire?
- Writing good questionnaires
- They should contain good questions (above)
- They should contain filler questions – irrelevant questions to distract participants from the aim of the study. This may reduce demand characteristics.
- Think carefully about the sequence of questions – start with the easy ones and save the ones that may make people anxious or defensive for when the participant has relaxed.
- Think carefully about your sampling technique. Questionnaires often use stratified sampling.
- Test your questionnaire in a pilot study before the main study. This means that the questions can later be refined in response to any difficulties encountered.
109
Why are the design decisions of a questionnaire important?
These design decisions are to make questionnaires objective and systematic ways of doing psychological research (i.e. it makes them a scientific tool) so that the data collected truly reflects what a person actually thinks and/or feels.
110
What are correlations?
- Correlations systematically show how strong a relationship is between two continuous variables (e.g. stress and illness)
- In correlations, the variables are called co-variables
- Correlations are not technically a research method; it is a method to analyse data
111
What are the coefficients in correlations always between?
- Coefficients are always between -1 and +1. The bigger the number, the stronger the relationship between the co variables.
- + = positive correlation
- - = negative correlation
112
What is the rule of thumb for the strength of correlation and coefficient?
- Rule of thumb:
- .8 and above = strong correlation
- around .5-.79 = moderate correlation
- around .3= weak correlation
- near 0 = zero correlation
113
How are correlations used in the assessment of reliability and validity?
Correlations are used in the assessment of reliability and validity. The coefficient must be above +.8 for a study to be considered reliable and/or valid. The statistical test would be Spearman’s or Pearson’s
114
What’s the difference between a correlation and an experiment?
In a corelation the experimenter does not control the variables
115
What is the difference between a directional hypothesis and non directional correlational hypothesis?
- Directional states whether there is a positive or negative correlation
- Non directional just states that there is a correlation (not whether it is strong or weak)
116
What are the strengths and weaknesses of correlational research?
Strengths:
- Investigating data trends
- If correlations are significant, further research is justified. If insignificant, likely rules out a causal relationship
- Procedures in correlational research are often replicable, which means findings can be corroborated in the future
Weaknesses:
- The co-variables are only measured and not altered, meaning we can’t conclude one co-variable causes the other
- Can't assume causal relationships
- Supposed causal link can be due to intervening variables
- Correlations can lack internal and external validity
117
What are the four pieces of information needed when interpreting scattergrams?
- when interpreting a scattergram, four pieces of information are needed
1. Type of correlation - +, -, or 0
2. strength of correlation - strong, moderate, weak, zero, moderately strong etc
3. what the correlation means in plain English - e.g. as height increases, weight increases
4. any anomalies or a change in direction
118
What is an intervening variable?
Intervening variable - a variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two other variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat - which causes the increase in ice cream sales and increase in violence
119
What is curvilinear correlation vs linear correlation?
- Curvilinear correlation - a non-linear relationship between two other variables
- Linear correlation - a systematic relationship between co-variables taht is defined by a straight line
120
What is a correlation coefficient?
Correlation coefficient - a number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated
121
What are unstructured observations?
- Unstructured observations
- The researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system
- Sometimes used in situations where research has not been previously conducted, such as a piolet study
- May be too much to record and the behaviours recorded may not be the ones taht are most important or relevant, only the ones most eye-catching
122
What are structured observations?
- Structured observations
- Observational techniques, like all research techniques, aim to be objective and rigorous
- The two main ways to use structured observations:
- Using behaviour categories
- Sampling procedures
123
What are behavioural categories and what should they include?
- Behavioural categories
- In order to conduct systematic observations, a researcher needs to break up the stream of behaviour into different behavioural categories. What is needed is operationalism
- Behavioural categories should:
- Be objective: the observer should not have to make inferences about the behaviour, but should just record explicit actions
- Cover all possible component behaviours and avoid a ‘waste basket’ category
- Be mutually exclusive, meaning that you should not have to mark two categories at one time
124
What are sampling procedures?
- Sampling procedures
- In many situations, continuous observation is not possible because there would be too much data to record; therefore there must be a systematic method of sampling observations:
- Event sampling - counting the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs in a target individual or individuals, for example counting how many times a person smiles in a 10 minute period
- Time sampling - recording behaviours in a given time frame. For example, noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds or some other time interval, At that time the observer may tick one or more categories from a checklist
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (11)
# Cards
