In caregiver-infant interactions in humans, whats reciprocity
Infancy refers to child’s first year, though some include a child’s second.
> One of key interactions w caregivers and infants is non-verbal communication,
without words and/or without sound.
>
> may form basis of attachment between. Its the way each respond to the other that determines formation of attachment
> the more sensitive each is to other’s signals, the deeper the relationship.
..
• Reciprocity
Research (1970s) demonstrated infants coordinated actions w caregivers in a convo way.
- From birth, babies move in a rhythm when interacting like taking turns, as ppl do in convos
- one person leans forward and speaks then its the other’s turn. (reciprocity.)
- Babies rapidly become communicative responding to parent’s actions or other environmental stimuli.
- A smile in contrast to a cry means it was good. Do it again.
- ## Smiling is reciprocity - when a smile occurs in one, triggers a smile in other.
- From age of one month, interactions between babies and parents become increasingly reciprocal,
- babies respond to parent’s behaviour and increasingly their actions.
caregiver-infant interactions in humans: How did brazelton study reciprocity
Brazelton (1979) suggested the basic rhythm of reciprocity
is an important prediction to later communications.
>
> Regularity of infant’s signals allows to predict infant’s behaviour to respond appropriate.
> This sensitivity to infant behaviour lays foundation for later attachment between caregiver and infant.
caregiver-infant interactions in humans : What was tronick et als research on reciprocity?
- The researchers asked mothers whod been enjoying a dialogue with their baby
- to stop moving and maintain a static, unsmiling expression on their faces.
-
> Babies would try to tempt the mother into interaction by smiling themselves,
> and wd become puzzled/increasingly distressed when their smile did not provoke the usual response.
> Thus, babies expect and anticipate concordant responses to their smiles.
In caregiver-infant interactions in humans, whats interactional synchrony
- Interactional synchrony is an interaction between parent and child where
> partners share a mutual focus, mirror each other’s affect,
> exhibit high degree of reciprocity, and responsive to each others cues (Pasiak, 2011).
> As definition indicates, theres clear overlap between notions of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
>
> However key difference is timing, interactional synchrony means behaviour takes place at (or almost) same time
> Reciprocity = baby smiles then care giver talks to baby
> Interactional synchrony = baby and care giver smile at each other at same time
..
The importance of i. synchrony in attachment was demonstrated by Isabella et al. (1989),
- found that securely attached mother-infant pairs were those whod
- shown more instances of i. synchrony in home observations in the first year.
caregiver-infant interactions in humans: Meltzoff and moores research on interactional synchrony
Aim:
Conduct a controlled observation to investigate i synchrony of facial expressions in 2-and 3-week-old infants.
Procedure:
- Infants presented with three facial expressions (tongue protrusion, lip protrusion, open mouth)
- and one hand movement involving sequential finger movement.
- A dummy was in infant’s mouth to prevent movement before/during modelling of behaviour by adult.
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- After presentation of behaviour by model, the dummy was removed
- the immediate response/behaviour was recorded on a close-up video.
- Independent judges rated infants responses for likeness to any of four target behaviours.
- Raters were not aware of expression or movement infant was exposed to.
Findings:
- There was a significant association between model’s and infant’s behaviour,
- with infants imitating specific facial expressions or hand movements.
Conclusion:
- Very young infants spontaneously imitate facial/hand movements of adult models.
- The same effect was later demonstrated in infants of less than 3 days old.
caregiver-infant interactions in humans: Meltzoff and moores study evaluation (Supports the idea of an innate ability)
- it provides strong empirical evidence that interactional synchrony is innate rather than learned.
- demonstrated infants at two wks old cd imitate specific facial expressions and gestures
- At this age, infants have had very limited opportunity for social learning, meaning unlikely
- ## behaviour has been acquired through observation or reinforcement: suggests
- ability to engage in interactional synchrony is biologically pre-programmed.
- so findings supports early social behaviour as w an evolutionary basis, meaning research can be
- support for bowlbys monotropic theory, that attachments have developed for survival
Schaffer and emerson stages of attachment study
- babies have many skills and abilities and have innate behaviour to certain stimuli.
- though time after birth’s special for parents to bond with their baby,
- process of formation of attachments takes longer in human infants
> around 7/8 months before babies show first real attachments.
- - The stages of attachment were identified by Schaffer and Emerson
- in longitudinal study of babies from working-class area of Glasgow
..
Aim:
To investigate formation of early attachments; mainly the age
They developed emotional intensity and to whom.
Procedure:
- involved 60 babies - 31 male, 29 female. - from Glasgow and most were from skilled working-class families.
-
- babies/mothers were visited every month for first year and at 18 months.
- asked mothers questions abt kind of protest their babies showed
- in 7 everyday separations (adult leaving room, measures separation anxiety)
> designed to measure the infant’s attachment.
- also assessed stranger anxiety - infant’s anxiety response to unfamiliar adults.
Findings:
- between 25 and 32 weeks abt 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety
- towards a particular adult, usually mother (specific attachment).
- Attachment was to caregiver who was most interactive
- and sensitive to infant signals and facial expressions (i.e, reciprocity).
> not necessarily person with whom infant spent most time.
By 40 weeks 80% of the babies had a specific attachment; almost 30% displayed multiple attachments.
What are the stages of attachment identified by schaffer and emerson
Based on the info they gathered on developing attachments, Schaffer and Emerson proposed attachments happen in 4 stages
• Pre-attachment stage (birth to 3 months)
- From six weeks, infants get attracted to other humans,
- demonstrated by their smiling at peoples faces.
• Indiscriminate attachment stage (3 to 7/8 months)
- Infants begin to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people,
- smiling more at known, though will let strangers to handle and look after them.
• Discriminate attachment stage (7/8 months onwards)
- Infants develop specific attachments, staying close to particular people
- and becoming distressed when separated from them.
- avoid unfamiliar people and protest if strangers try to handle them.
• Multiple attachments stage (9 months onwards)
- Infants form strong emotional ties with other major caregivers,
> grandparents, and non-caregivers, like other children.
- The fear of strangers weakens, but attachment to mother figure remains strongest.
EVALUATION of stages identified by Schaffer and emerson (applications)
+ research support (study on attachments : age and to whom investigating SeA and StA)
.
• has practical application to childcare practices.
- findings demonstrated attachment is a gradual process and highlighted importance
- of early, consistent interaction between infant and caregiver. This has influenced practices
- like encouraging parental leave/promoting sensitive responsiveness in early childcare settings.
-
- For example, it supports the idea that caregivers shd be consistently available during early months
- to facilitate secure attachment formation to inc real-world value of the research,
- as it extends beyond theoretical understanding and actively informs policies
- and parenting approaches, so improving developmental outcomes for children.
What are multiple attachments
It is not disputed that most children form multiple attachments, emotional bonds with several.
- But whats disputed is relative importance of diff attachment figures.
John Bowlby believed children had one primary attachment
- and that although children had attachments to other people,
- these were of minor importance compared to main attachment bond.
-
However, Rutter (1995) proposed a model of multiple attachments
- as of equal importance, with these attachments combining together
- to help form a child’s internal working model
Multiple attachments are often formed to diff people for diff purposes,
>for example to mother for loving care, but additionally
> to father for exciting unpredictable play. Other attachments are often formed to grandparents, siblings and childminders.
Whats the role of the father
Traditionally fathers were seen to have played a minor role in how children are raised
- some would argue males are biologically unsuitable to raise children.
- In past children were raised mainly by married couples,
- with father going to work to provide resources for his family, while mother stayed at home to look after children
»But society has changed a lot. Its the norm now for mothers to have a job.
In 2013 5.3 million British mothers were in employment, with males comprising nearly 10% of those who care for children while their partner goes out to work.
Another interesting statistic is that 9% of British single parents (186,000) are male. Evidently many men are having a much bigger role in parenting than before.
> > Explanations for the traditional role of the father :
• Bowlby = Females produce oestrogen which promoles caring behaviour
- and sensitivity while males do not and this may be one explanation
- for the role of the father being secondary
•
• White et al = Research suggests the father’s role has also been seen more
- as a playmate to encourage physical activity, challenging situations
- and thus encourage problem-solving through placing cognitive demands on the child
Whats what grossman’s AND tiffany field’s research on the role of the father
Grossman (2002)
a longitudinal study looking at both parents’ behaviour and its relationship
- to the quality of children’s attachments into their teens.
>Quality of infant attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to children’s attachments in adolescence,
>suggesting father attachment was less important.
>
> However, quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to quality of adolescent attachments.
> fathers have a different role in attachment
- more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
..
Tiffany Field (1978)
filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interaction w primary caregiver mothers,
secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers.
- Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary
- This behaviour appears to be important in building an attachment with infant.
>
>So it seems fathers can be more nurturing attachment figures.
>The key to the attachment relationship is level of responsiveness not gender of the parent.
EVALUATION of multiple attachments and grossman (reliance on caregiver reports)
• Reliance on caregiver reports
- particularly from mothers, to assess attachment behaviours. Mothers were asked to
- record instances of separation anxiety/stranger distress: introduces possibility of social desirability bias
- mothers may underreport behaviours that suggest weaker attachment or
- overreport behaviours that present themselves as attentive caregivers, so presented in best possible light
-
- reduces reliability of data collected, not providing an entirely objective measure of infant’s attachments.
- so the conc that infants form multiple attachments may be questioned, as number and strength
- of these attachments could have been misrepresented due to biased reporting.
- so results cannot be generalised
Lorenzs study
- in mang species attachments are formed soon after birth.
- process was first investigated Lorenz, who studied animal behaviour.
- In his observations he noticed newborn animals follow the first large moving object they saw after birth (mother)
> and to attach themselves to it.
..
• Procedure:
- took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided into two groups.
- one group left with mother; others placed in incubator
- When incubator eggs hatched the first living (moving) thing they saw was Lorenz
- they soon started following him around.
-
To test this effect of imprinting
- Lorenz marked the two groups to distinguish and placed together
- Lorenz and their natural mother were present.
..
Findings:
- The goslings quickly divided themselves,
- one following their natural mother and other group following Lorenz.
- Lorenz’s brood showed no recognition of their natural mother.
-
- Lorenz found this process of imprinting is restricted to a definite period of young animal’s life, critical period.
- If young animal is not exposed to a moving object during critical period
- the animal will not imprint. This suggests animals can imprint on a persistently present moving object seen within its first two days.
Whats imprinting in lorenzs study and long lasting effects of not imprinting
Imprinting is a process similar to attachment in
>it binds a young animal to a caregiver in a special relationship.
>
Lorenz did observe that imprinting to humans doesnt occur in some animals,
Eg. curlews will not imprint on
a human
Long-lasting effects:
- Lorenz (1952) noted several features of imprinting, eg the process is irreversible and long lasting
- Lorenz described how one of his geese, Martina, slept on his bed every night.
-
- Lorenz also noted early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences, called sexual imprinting
> Animals (especially birds) choose to mate with same kind of object upon wch they were imprinted.
Harlows study
RESEARCH - Harlow (1959)
• Aim:
To study behaviour of infant monkeys separated from mothers at birth to test effects of separation.
• Procedure:
- Harlow made two wire mothers with a diff ‘head’. One was wrapped in soft cloth. - Eight infant rhesus monkeys were studied for 165 days.
> For four of them the milk bottle was on the cloth-covered mother,
> and on plain wire mother for the other four monkeys.
-
- measurements were made of amount of time each infant spent with the two diff ‘mothers’.
- Observations were made of responses when frightened by eg a mechanical teddy bear.
• Findings:
- All eight monkeys spent most of their time with cloth-covered mother
> whether or not had the feeding bottle.
- The monkeys who fed from wire mother spent a short time getting milk
- then returned to cloth-covered mother.
-
- When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother,
- when playing with new objects monkeys kept a foot on the cloth-covered mother
>seemingly for reassurance.
The findings say infants dont develop attachment to one who feeds them
but to the person offering contact comfort.
What were long lasting effects and critical period in Harlows study
Harlow (1959) continued to study his rhesus monkeys as they grew up
>and noted consequences of their early attachment experiences.
- these monkeys, even those who had contact comfort, developed abnormally
- Were socially abnormal; froze or fled when approached by other monkeys
- were sexually abnormal; didnt cradle own babies and had abnormal mating behaviour
Like Lorenz, Harlow also found that there was a critical period for these effects.
- If the motherless monkeys spent time with their monkey ‘peers’
- seemed to recover but only if before three months old.
- Having more than six months with only a wire mother was something they did not appear able to recover from
AO3 of Harlows study (ethics)
• the serious ethical issues it raises.
- monkeys were exposed to significant psychological harm, inc long-term distress/social development problems.
- eg, some monkeys struggled to form normal relationships later in life and showed abnormal
- parenting behaviours when became adults. is a major concern bc violates modern ethical guidelines
- such as protection from harm and psychological wellbeing.
-
-Although provided valuable insights into attachment, level of suffering caused to animals means research
- would not be considered acceptable today. So the study is irreplicable and the findings cannot be falsified today
- reducing the scientific status of animal studies of attachment in psychology
Evaluation of Lorenzs study (artificial)
• took place in an artificial environment,
- reduces ecological validity. The goslings were studied in controlled conditions
- where Lorenz deliberately manipulated wch “mother” they followed, rather than
- observing natural behaviour in the wild. So, behaviour of the goslings may not reflect how
-
- imprinting actually occurs in more realistic, complex environments where multiple stimuli are present.
- attachment in real-life animal settings is influenced by environmental factors - eg predators,
- so while the study is useful for identifying basic principles of imprinting,
- its lack of naturalistic setting limits how findings can be generalised to real-world animal behaviour.
Explanations of attachment: Whats the learning theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment (classical conditioning)
It proposes all behaviour is learned rather than innate
- children are born blank slates
- everything the become’s explained in terms of their experiences
-
- learning theorists (behaviourists) focus explanations on behaviour
- not whats going on in their minds
> suggest all behaviours learned through conditioning
..
Attachment by classical conditioning
• [before conditioning]
food (UCS) > happy (UCR)
• [during]
mother (NS) is associated with UCS > happy (UCR)
• [after conditioning]
mother (CS) > happy (CR)
Classical conditioning is learning through association;
NS consistently paired with UCS;
takes on CS’s properties
Whats the learning theory of attachment as an explanation of attachment (operant conditioning)
Its learning through reinforcement; behaviour becomes more likely as outcome is reinforced/rewarded;
Involves learning depending on consequences/response
Its NEGATIVE reinforcement
• Infant experiences hunger; discomfort drives it to make noise (behaviour)
• comfort provided by food (reward)
•
• mother is source of food (reward) so infant is motivated to be with mother to stop hunger
• attachment forms
Explanations of attachment:
Evaluation of learning theory of attachment
• harlows acts as evidence against (comfort rather than food)
•
• struggles to explain role of fathers in attachment.
- Many fathers do not act as the primary feeder, yet infants still form strong attachments to them.
- This cannot be explained by operant or classical conditioning, as is no consistent food-based reinforcement.
- Therefore, the theory lacks explanatory power when accounting for multiple attachments/role of different caregivers
.
.
.
• overly reductionist bc it explains attachment in simple conditioning processes: classical/ operant conditioning.
- simplifying to simple SR links ignores complexity of emotional development. In reality,
- attachment involves high level psychological/ social factors: reciprocity, sensitivity, social interaction between C and I.
- so the theory fails to account for the richness of real-life caregiver–infant relationships.
- so learning theory lacks explanatory power and is not a comprehensive account of attachment formation.
Explanations of attachment:
What is bowlbys monotropic theory (monotropy)
Lorenz’s research on imprinting made Bowlby assume a similar process was in humans
- Attachment behaviour evolved as it serves an important survival function
> an infant attached is less well protected.
- Our distant infant ancestors wdve been in danger if didnt stay close to adult.
-
- Its important attachments are formed in two directions
- parents must also be attached to infants to ensure theyre cared for so survive.
- only parents who look after offspring are likely to produce more generations.
..
• Monotropy
- Bowlby’s theorys monotropic as he placed emphasis on child’s attachment to one particular caregiver
- attachment to this caregiver is diff/more important than others.
-
- he called this the ‘mother’ ; was clear it need not be biological mother.
- the more time spent with the ‘mother’/primary attachment figure the better.
»_space; He put forward two principles to clarify this
•
• The law of continuity stated the more constant and predictable a child’s care,
the better the quality of their attachment.
•
• The law of accumulated separation stated the effects of every separation
from mother add up ‘so safest dose is therefore a zero dose’.
Explanations of attachment:
What is bowlbys monotropic theory (Social releasers and critical period)
Bowlby suggested babies are born with a set of innate ‘cute’ behaviours
>like smiling, cooing and gripping that encourage attention from adults.
- these are social releasers as the purpose is to activate adult attachment system,
> i.e. make an adult feel love towards the baby.
- Bowlby recognised that attachment was a reciprocal process.
- Both mother and baby have an innate incline to become attached
- and social releasers trigger that response in caregivers.
- Babies have an innate drive to become attached.
- Innate behaviours can have special time period (critical period) for development
- The critical period for attachment is round two years.
> Infants who dont have opportunity to form an attachment during this time
> seem to have difficulty forming attachments later on (intellectual and emotional consequences)
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Section 2: Memory61
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Section 7: Research Methods84
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Section 1: Social Influence39
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Section 5: Approaches In Psychology85
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Psychopathology41
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Research Methods: inferential Statistics11
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Attachment64
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Exam Technique (rm, 16mks)63
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Issues And Debates40
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Biopsychology57
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paper 2 exam questions!12
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paper 3 exam questions!4
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Schizophrenia79
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Forensic Psychology85
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Gender67
