1
Q
Definitions of masculine and feminine
A
- masculine and feminine are sometimes used to describe roles, behaviours and attitudes
- ## that are deemed to be appropriate for males and females respectively.
- eg. masculine role would be that of father: traditionally might be expected to be financial provider for family.
- eg feminine role might be that of mother: traditionally might be expected to take lead in caring for children
2
Q
Sex vs gender definitions
A
- Sex refers to biological status as either male or female.
- ## defined by our chromosomes, hormones and anatomical differences.
- Gender is psychosocial and refers to roles, attitudes and behaviours associated w
- being either male or female. These differ according to society in wch we love, making gender a social construction
3
Q
- Sex and gender:
Sex role stereotypes
A
- are a set of shared expectations that people hold abt whats acceptable or usual behaviour for males/females.
- expectations communicated throughout society; reinforced by parents, peers, media,
» as well as other institutions such as schools.
- - Although some sex-role stereotypes may contain a some truth, many dont, and
- lead to sexist assumptions being formed, such as idea a woman wont have capacity to cope w
- a position of high responsibility in the workplace, as she may become ‘over-emotional
4
Q
Research support for sex and gender : sex role stereotypes: Seavey’s study method
A
• Aim:
- To investigate whether gender label attached to baby, affected adult response in a Baby X study.
•
•
• Method:
A 3m-old infant was dressed in a yellow baby suit. 1/3 of ppts were told infant was male, another third were told female
- and another third were not given a gender label. Ppts were left to interact with child for three minutes.
- in room were a ball (typically male toy), a rag doll
(female toy) and a plastic ring (a gender-neutral toy).
5
Q
Research support for sex and gender : sex role stereotypes: Seavey’s study result
A
- baby was labelled as female: ppts were more likely to use the doll when playing with child.
- male: ppts tended to use gender-neutral toy. When they were told nothing about child’s gender,
- female participants interacted freely with child while male participants did not.
.
.
• Conclusions: - Adults will interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female.
6
Q
Research support for sex and gender : sex role stereotypes: deloache
A
• Aim:
- To see how parents create sex-role stereotypes when reading to young children.
• Procedure:
- The researchers used storybook called ‘The three bears’: no characters were clearly identified as
- either male or female. Mothers were observed reading the storybook to their children.
.
.
• Findings:
- mothers spontaneously labelled 62% of bears as male, and only 16% as female.
- Female labelling occurred only where a bigger or small (child) bear was present.
.
• Conclusion:
- Even where gender of characters is not given, adult readers will present characters
- as male except where character could be seen to be involved in caring for young
7
Q
Sex and gender: whats androgyny
A
- Bem introduced concept of psychological androgyny, proposing one can be masculine and feminine,
- ## an idea that contrasted w traditional view masculine and feminine behaviours are separate clusters.-
- Also, Bem argued traditional view: rigid sex roles were important for mental health,
- whereas her view was its psychologically healthier to avoid fixed sex-role stereotypes.
- Instead argued men/women shd feel free to adopt a variety of masculine/ feminine-type behaviours to suit personality.
>
> a man who likes being gentle shdnt stifle his personal inclinations bc isn’t manly behaviour.
> Stifling personality in this way has a psychological cost which can lead to
mental disorder.
8
Q
Sex and gender : bem sex role inventory
A
- BSRI measured a person’s androgyny. To develop scale, 100
American undergraduates - were asked to give ratings on a seven-point scale to 200 personality traits. scale asked them
- ## to determine how desirable each trait was for either men or women. On the basis of these ratings-
- Bem chose 20 traits that judges rated as more desirable for males than for females (aggressive, independent),
- and 20 traits they had rated as more desirable for females than males (warm, affectionate, gentle).
- A further 20 neutral traits that are identified as desirable for both were also chosen (friendly, loyal, theatrical).
- Respondents were asked to give themselves a rating for each trait on a seven-point scale
- where 1 = (almost) never true of me, and 7 = (almost) always true of me.
9
Q
Sex and gender: after completing BSRI and spencers criticism
A
-After completing , respondents receive an overall masculinity score and an overall femininity score,
- somewhere between 20 and 140. These two scores can then be plotted on two dimensions below.
-
- A fourth category of undifferentiated (low scores for both masculine and feminine) was added
- after criticisms by Spence et al., who pointed out Bem hadnt distinguished between persons
- who were androgynous (high in both masculine and feminine traits) and a different kind of androgyny,
- where a person is neither masculine nor feminine (low in both).
»> This is the undifferentiated type
10
Q
Sex and gender: ao3 Androgyny (reliability and validity of scale)
A
- BSRI developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in how desirable for men/women.
- ## traits that were highest scorers in each category became 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits in the scale.
- BSRI was piloted w 1000 students and results broadly corresponded w ppts own desc of their gender identity.
» SO the SRI has a degree of validity.
.
. - A follow-up study involving a smaller sample of same students revealed similar scores
- when students were tested a month later. SO that scale has high test-retest reliability.
11
Q
Androgyny ao3 (social desirability, applications)
A
- it relies on self-report, which may be affected by social desirability bias. Ppts may respond
- ## in a way they believe is socially acceptable rather than giving truthful answers abt their personality traits.
- eg individuals may over-report traits viewed positively, like being caring/assertive, so under-report undesirable.
- reduces internal validity of measure, as results dont accurately reflect an one’s true level of androgyny.
- As a result, concs drawn abt benefits of androgyny may be less reliable.
⸻
- concept of Androgyny has useful real-world applications. The idea individuals can
- possess both masculine and feminine traits challenges traditional gender stereotypes
- so and promotes greater flexibility in behaviour. Eg encouraging androgyny may allow individuals
- to respond more adaptively to diff situations, like being assertive in work settings/ nurturing in relationships.
- important implications for reducing gender stereotyping and promoting equality,
- so suggesting that the concept has high practical value in modern society.
12
Q
Chromosomes and hormones: typical sex chromosome patterns
A
- normal human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each pair of chromosomes
- carries genes that control diff characteristics. Biological sex is determined
- by the 23rd chromosome pair. If pairing for chromosome 23 is XX, female, and XY,male.
- is usually a direct link between an individual’s chromosomal sex (XX and XY) and
- their external genitalia (vagina and penis) and internal genitalia (ovaries or testes).
.
. - During prenatal development all, a few weeks after conception both male and female embryos
- have external genitalia that look essentially feminine. When foetus is abt 6-8 weeks old, if develop as male,
- the testes normally produce a male hormone testosterone - causes external male genitalia to develop.
- Genetic transmission explains how individuals acquire sex. may also explain some aspects of gender
- (a sense of whether are male/female) bc of link between genes and genitalia and hormones.
13
Q
Role of chromosomes and hormones: atypical chromosome patterns (klinefelters syndrome)
A
Klinefelter’s syndromes due to an
XXY config: individual is born w penis: develops as normal male.
- Approximately 1 in 1000 males have this condition. Such individuals tend to be
- taller than avg and may have less muscular coordination than average. Physically look less masculine bc
- of reduced levels of testosterone, eg.
Less facial hair, broader hips and
possible breast tissue. often infertile.
.
.
• Physical effects: less body hair, under developed genitals, long legs in relation to torso; infertile
• psychological: poor language skill affecting reading, passive temprament
14
Q
Role of chromosomes and hormones: atypical chromosome patterns (turners syndrome)
A
- due to XO configuration - second sex chromosome is partly/completely
missing. - occurs in about 1 in 2000
females at birth. Such individuals are born w a vagina and womb. - characteristics include being shorter than average w lack of monthly periods bc underdeveloped ovaries.
.
.
• physical: a small lower jaw, webbed
neck, narrow hips, misshapen internal organs and so on
• psychological: higher than avg reading ability, lower avg spatial ability, visual memory, maths skill, difficulty socially
15
Q
Role of hormones
A
- Chromosomes initially determine sex but most gender development is from influence of hormones.
- ## Prenatally in womb, hormones act upon brain development: cause development of reproductive organs.
- At puberty, a burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics
- such as pubic hair. Males and females produce many of same hormones in diff concs.
- primary importance in male development are types of hormones called androgens, most widely known is testosterone.
16
Q
Role of hormones: testosterone
A
- Testosterone is a male hormone which controls the development of male sex organs,
- which begins to be produced at around eight weeks of foetal development.
» SRY gene on Y > testes > testosterone > male reproductive organs/brain organised in a way to promote male typical behaviour (Ning zhou as support) - ## Much research has focussed on behavioural effects of testosterone, most notably its link to aggression.
- Human and animal studies have demonstrated influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour, - for instance, Dabbs’s research on male prisoners
17
Q
Role of hormones : oestrogen
A
- Oestrogen is a female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation.
- w physical changes, oestrogen causes heightened emotionality/irritability during menstrual cycle.
- referred to as pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) when effects become a diagnosable disorder.
- In extreme cases, PMS has been used (successfully) as defence in cases of shoplifting and even murder.
- That said, some researchers dispute the existence of PMS as a viable medical category.
18
Q
Role of hormones : oxytocin
A
- Women typically produce oxytocin in much larger amounts than men, particularly as a result of giving birth.
- The hormone stimulates lactation, making possible for mothers to breastfeed children.
- also reduces stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding. Oxytocin is released in
- massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and makes new mothers feel ‘in love w their baby.
.
. - fact that men produce less has fuelled stereotype men are less interested in intimacy/closeness in a relationship.
- However, evidence suggests
that both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts - during amorous activities such as kissing and sexual intercourse.
19
Q
Money and Erhardt - case of david reimer (procedure)
A
- To see whether child whose sex had been reassigned could be successfully socialised as a female.
•
•
• Procedure: - Bruce was a healthy 7m-old twin boy, who was accidently castrated during a routine operation.
- ## Dr Money advised parents that best solution wd be to raise him as a girl w plastic surgery for a female external appearance.
- At adolescence the child was given the female hormone, oestrogen. Progress was monitored until
- early adolescence, when family ceased contact w researchers. Many years later,
- Bruce made his identity public: discontinued oestrogen treatment at 12 and had surgery to reverse previous plastic surgery.
- He was married and living as a man.
Despite his parents efforts to treat him
as a girl, he said hed hated wearing dresses and preferred boys toys.
20
Q
Money and Erhardt - case of david reimer (conc)
A
•Findings:
- Dr Money initially reported the case was a success and that the child had assumed a traditional female identity.
- Money took this as evidence for
theory of neutrality. later revelations suggested gender reassignment was not successful.
.
.
• Conclusion:
- final outcome suggests that biological influences are more important than socialisation.
- Bruce was a biological male with XY chromosomes; treating him as a girl for many years appeared not to have affected his identity as a male.
21
Q
imperato-McGinley et al - batista boys (procedure)
A
• Aim:
- To investigate how well the ‘Batista boys’ (38 boys from 23 families in the Dominican Republic)
- adopted their biological male identity when been brought up as females.
..
.
• Procedure:
- The Batista boys had a rare genetic abnormality, wch meant that although they born w male sex chromosomes
- they appeared female at birth. At puberty. changes in testosterone levels caused them
-
- to change physically into males (in normal males these changes take place in womb before born but
- bc of genetic abnormality this had not happened, and had been born with physical appearance of girls
- Interviews w boys and families confirmed for first part of childhood, had been brought up as girls/socialised as females.
22
Q
Dabbs, Nanne Van de Poll, Young on hormones on sex and gender
A
• Dabbs et al.
- took saliva samples from 700 male prisoners and related them to
- prison record info such as type of crime and incidents of broken prison rules.
- found that high-testosterone level men were more likely to have broken prison rules
- and committed crimes involving sex and violence than men with lower testosterone levels.
.
.
• Nanne Van de Poll et al. (1988)
- showed female rats whod been injected w testosterone became more physically/sexually aggressive.
.
.
• Young et al. 1964
- injected pregnant Monkeys with androgens (eg Testosterone).
- Gave birth to females w masculinised genitalia and masculine behaviour.
(Aggressive, threatening, and tumble, mounting other females!)
23
Q
imperato-McGinley et al - batista boys (result)
A
• Findings:
- Despite having been raised as girls, boys had no problems adapting well to their new male identity.
- Most went on to marry local
girls and raise a family as a traditional male.
.
.
• Conclusion:
- This case study illustrates the importance of biological factors in gender development.
- seems having a Y chromosome and being biologically male can override effects of years of socialisation as a female.
24
Q
Ao3 role of chromosomes and hormones on sex/gender (nature nurture )
A
- approach is purely nature only focusing on when social and nurture does have impact
- gender identity is purely down to biology then impossible that these diffs cd change over a short period of time (50 years).
- However have been great changes in roles of men and women in society (e.g., women ikely to go work, me likely to look after children).
» suggests that these behaviours are social (nurture) too rather than innate (nature).
» lead to interactionist approach being preferred as relative contribution considered
.
.
+ support (young, nanne van de poll, dabbs)
25
Ao3 role of chromosomes and hormones on sex/gender (tricker )
Tricker conducted double-blind study of 43 males who received 600mg per week of testosterone or a placebo.
- study lasted 10 weeks. Ppts were tested before, during, after treatment on two anger questionnaires.
-
- Family and friends were asked to rate Ppts on aggressive behaviour and mood.
- No significant differences were found between the experimental group and the control
26
Cognitive ex: kohlbergs theory what is it
Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory of gender
- based on idea child's understanding of gender (inc idea of appropriate gender~roles, behaviours/ attitudes)
-
- become more sophisticated w age. Understanding runs parallel to intellectual development as matures biologically.
- ages suggested by Kohlberg reflected on idea that transition from stage to stage is gradual not sudden.
27
Stages of kohlbergs cognitive developmental theory
1. Gender identity (~2yrs)
- can identify self as a boy or a girl.
- By 3yrs can identify other ppl as male or female,
- correctly respond to, 'Wch one of these is like you?' if shown a picture of a man or a woman.
.
.
2. Gender stability (~4yrs)
- Child realises that sex stays the same over time.
- children do not understand
gender stays same across across time, in sits
>>> eg. A child might think a girl had changed into a boy bc play w car
- easily fooled by external appearance eg. Believing that a man w long hair is really a woman.
.
.
3. Gender constancy (6yrs)
- Child acquires a full understanding of gender, knowing stays same
>> in diff sits and despite changes in outward appearance.
- begin to seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.
28
Slaby and frey support for kohlbergs theory
• aim: tests Kohlbergs stage theory by carrying out gender concept interview
• procedure: children asked qs- gender identity tested by showing dolls or pics of adults
- the asking whether doll or adult is male or female
-
- gender stability tested by asking child what they were when were little and wd be when grown up
- gender constancy tested by asking children whether wd be girl or boy if opposite sex clothes/toys
.
.
- found that children's responses to these questions reflected the stages proposed i by Kohlberg.
- confirm understanding of gender constancy- develops in sequence of age related stages
29
Ao3 kohkbergs stages (research against)
- Gender constancy not required to acquire info on gender appropriate behaviour
- bc Martin and Little found children under four showed no signs of gender stability, let alone signs of constancy,
- but displayed strong gender stereotypes abt what boys and girls were permitted to do.
-
- shows have acquired
info abt gender roles before Kohlberg suggested, in line w gender schema theory
30
Ao3 kohlbergs stages (methological issues)
-bc Kohlberg's theory developed using interviews w children who were as young as two or three.
- Although the questions asked were
tailored towards the particular age group he was dealing with, Kohlberg may not have acknowledged that very young children lack the vocabulary required to express their understanding. Such children may have relatively complex iseas
31
Gender Schema Theory: Gender schema acquired with gender identity
- Schema are mental constructs that develop via experience/some present at birth in a basic form
- and used by our cognitive system to organise
knowledge around topics.
> so gender schema is generalised representation of all we know abt gender/gender-
appropriate behaviour.
.
.
- According to Martin and Halverson, once a child has established gender identity
around 2-3 years
- begin to search environment for
info that
- encourages development of gender schema. contrasts with
Kohlberg’s view
- that this process only begins after have progressed
-through
all three stages, around 7 with gender constancy.
32
gender schema theory: Schema direct behaviour and self-understanding
-Schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits. For
young children, schema are likely
- to form around stereotypes, like boys
play w trucks and vice versa, and these provide a framework that
- directs experience as well as child’s understanding of itself (‘I am a boy so I
play w trucks’).
- By 6yrs, child has a rather fixed and stereotypical idea abt whats appropriate for gender.
- For this reason, children are likely to disregard info that does not fit with their existing schema.
33
gender schema theory: ingroups and outgroups w stages
- Children tend to have a much better understanding of schemas appropriate to own gender (the ingroup).
- consistent w idea children pay more attention to info relevant to own gender
identity,
- rather opposite sex (outgroup). not until children abt 8 that they develop elaborate schemas
- for both genders, as opposed to just own. Ingroup identity also serves to bolster child’s level of self-esteem.
.
.
- Stage 1: Child learns what things are associated with each sex (e.g., girls play with dolls).
-
- Stage 2: Child begins to make links between diff components of schema, so knowing what one likes to play wi will allow the child to predict
- other things abt them e.g., one who plays w dolls is likely to wear dresses and have long hair.
- stage 2, a child can only make these links for their own sex.
-
- Stage 3 Child can now use linked components for both sexes
34
gender schema theory: ao3 RESEARCH SUPPORT—Boston and Levy (1991)
- Aim: To see if knowledge abt stereotypically male/female activities
differed between boys and girls.
.
.
-Procedure: Boys and girls between 3-6 were asked to put sequences
of four pictures in order.
- Each set of four pics described activity, eg. Cooking dinner (typically female)
- and building a birdhouse
(typically male activity).
.
35
boston and levy result and conc
Findings: Both boys and girls were found to be able to put picture sequences in the order more accurately
-for own-gender activity. effect was
particularly noticeable for boys.
.
.
- Conc: Since task required detailed knowledge of an activity, boys and girls must have
- more knowledge of own-gender activities than of opposite-gender activities.
- findings were interpreted as consistent w gender schema theory.
36
gender schema theory ao3 (zosul)
- Gender identity even earlier: Zosul provided evidence children can label their gender group earlier
- than indicated in
previous studies. They recorded
- samples of children’s language and observed them at play
- in order to
identify when first started labelling themselves as a boy or a girl.
>> They concluded that children were using gender labels by the age of 19 months.
37
gender schema theory ao3: hard to generalise to diff cultures
- GST may overemphasise cognitive processes while neglecting role of social and cultural influences.
- For example, cross-cultural variations in gender roles suggest schemas
- are heavily shaped by societal norms, which GST does not fully explain.
- means hard to generalise to different cultures and is an incomplete theory
38
freuds psychoanalytic theory: pre phallic children
- Freud’s general developmental theory sees children pass through five psychosexual stages
- The third -phallic stage- is when gender development
occurs.
- Prior to reaching the stage (occurs 3 and 6) children have no concept of gender identity.
.
.
- Freud described pre-phallic children as
bisexual : neither masculine nor feminine.
- In phallic stage, focus of pleasure for child switches to the genitals, and this stage is where
- children experience the complexes; crucial in the formation of gender identity.
39
freuds psychoanalytic theory: oedipus complex
- boy develops a desire for his mother; at same time he is afraid of his father
-sees as a powerful rival for the mother’s affection. Fearing father’s
revenge,
-the boy becomes anxious he will castrate him.
.
.
-To resolve this
conflicting desire between love for his mother and fear of castration,
- boy gives up love for his mother so identifies w his father; identification w the aggressor.
- Through identification the boy adopts father’s male identity; assumes male characteristics.
.
.
- a boy who has not resolved his Oedipus complex will be confused about his sexual
identity.
40
freuds psychoanalytic theory: electra complex
- girl realises she lacks a penis and thinks shes already been castrated so develops ‘penis envy’,
- which leads to desire for the father who possesses what she wants.
- Double-resentment for mother develops as is seen as a rival for ffathers love,
- and secondly, girl blames mother for her
castration.
.
.
- her ‘penis envy’ is converted into a desire
for a baby (the ‘penis-baby’ project).
- the girl identifies with the mother and assumes the female role and female characteristics.
-came from Carl Jung who suggested girls, over
time, come to accept that
- they will never have a penis, hence, their identification with
mother.
41
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; Identification and internalisation
-crux of Freud’s theory is children of both sexes identify (identification)
w the same-sex parent
> copying their behaviour and taking them as a role model
- as a means of resolving their respective complexes.
- involves children taking on board gender identity of their same-sex parent: internalisation.
>> adopting same sex parent values and morals
- Essentially then, both boys and girls
receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity
- all at once at the end of the phallic stage.
.
.
- Freud saw female identification as weaker bc already suffered castration, so less fearful than boys. suggests
- that boys actively identify w their father, whereas for girls, process is more passive.
- This active-passive
diff can be seen in gender roles as they develop, w boys
>> becoming
active, dominant and aggressive,
>>and girls becoming quiet, passive and submissive.
42
research against for freud's psychoanalytic theory ao3 (ittle hans too, green)
- What about non-nuclear families? theory relies on the child having two parents of diff genders
- so able to manage complexes effectively. logical to assume
from the concs
- that being raised in a non-nuclear family would have an adverse effect on a gender development.
.
.
- Green investigated sexual
identity in children living in atypical households: 37 children,
- agreed between 3 and 20 years. were from households where the parents were
- either homosexual or transsexual. Various measures of children’s gender identity
were used:
- toys and clothing preferences, occupational preferences and roles
assumed in role plays.
.
.
- All except one of the children showed typical gender preferences and roles.
- concluded development of secure gender identity doesnt seem to depend on
- presence of two parents acting in traditional ‘mother’ and ‘father’ roles.
43
ao3 freuds psychoanalytic theory (not scientific)
-not scientifically testable. Concepts such as complexes operate in the unconscious
- and cannot be directly observed or falsified. This means
-the theory lacks empirical support and is often considered unscientific.
- reducing credibilty for psychology as a science
44
SLT applied to gender development
- Social learning theory acknowledges role that social context plays in development
- states all behaviour (inc gender) is learned from observing others.
- As such, draws attention to the influence of (nurture) in shaping gender
development.
- includes significant others child comes into contact with:
- parents, peers and teachers etc as well as the wider influence of culture and the media
.
.
45
SLT applied to gender development: direct reinforcement
- Children more likely to be reinforced (encouraged) for demonstrating behaviour thats
- gender-appropriate. eg boys may be encouraged to be active, assertive/engage in rough and tumble play.
- In contrast, boys are more likely to be punished for
being passive, gentle, staying close to parent.
-
- The way in which boys and girls are
encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate
- behaviour is called differential reinforcement. It is through this differential reinforcement that a
- child learns their
gender identity (I am a boy).
.
.
- Behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated. A child is more likely to imitate
- behaviour that has been reinforced (encouraged). reinforcement may be direct or indirect.
46
SLT applied to gender development: indirect reinforcement = vr
- If consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, behaviour is more
- likely to be imitated by child. eg, if a little girl sees her mother receive a
compliment when
-
- she wears make-up and a pretty dress, the girl may try and replicate this
behaviour when able.
- If consequences of behaviour are seen to be unfavourable, ie. Punished, behaviour is
- less likely to be imitated. If a little boy sees a male classmate teased for displaying feminine behaviour, such behaviour is unlikely to be copied.
47
slt: identification and modellling
-Identification refers to the process whereby a child attaches himself or herself to a
- person who possesses qualities that child sees as rewarding. These people are known
- as role models and may be part of child’s immediate environment (parents, teachers, siblings, etc.)
- or may be present within the media, such as pop stars or sports stars.
.
.
- Role models tend to be attractive, high status, and usually (and crucially) the same sex as the
child.
- From the role mode’s pov, modelling is precise demonstration of a behaviour
-
- that may be imitated by another observer. A mother may model stereotypically feminine
- behaviour when tidying the house or preparing dinner. same term is also used to
- explain learning from the observer’s pov. When a little girl copies her mother
setting the table
-, or attempts to ‘feed’ her doll using a bottle, shes modelling behaviour shes witnessed.
48
mediational process example for applying slt
1. Attention: for instance, a little boy might want to emulate his favourite
Premier League footballer by paying attention to what he does.
2. Retention: remembering the skills he showed on the pitch and trying to
reproduce these in the playground with his friends.
3. The motivation for the little boy comes from wanting to be like his hero
(identification)
4. Motor reproduction: be physically capable to doing it.
49
slt ao3: RESEARCH SUPPORT (for differential reinforcement) fagot
- Aim: To see whether parents treated male and female toddlers differently
when playing at home.
- Procedure: observed 24 toddlers aged 20-24m, playing at home in
presence of parents.
- recorded instances of reinforcement (verbal
encouragement)
- and punishment (‘telling off’ or critical comment). Various toys were available during observation.
.
.
- Findings: Girls were reinforced for dressing up, asking for help and staying near the
- parent. They were discouraged from playing roughly, jumping and climbing.
- Boys reinforced for playing w sex-appropriate toys like bricks; discouraged from playing with dolls.
.
.
-Conc: Parents respond differently to behaviour of male and female toddlers,
- encouraging them to behave in ways that are seen to be gender-appropriate.
50
ao3 slt application to gender development: compliments GSC in terms of cognitive
-While SLT acknowledges mediational processes, primarily focuses on external influences like
- observation and reinforcement, suggesting children passively imitate role models.
-
- Gender Schema Theory, wch argues that children are active processors
- who construct mental schemas to organise gender-related info. This is supported by evidence
- that children remember schema-consistent information better, indicating an
-
-active role in shaping own gender identity. so SLT may be overly simplistic, as fails to fully account
- for internal cognitive mechanisms that influence how gendered behaviour is interpreted and maintained.
51
ao3 slt application to gender development: application in understanding/shaping gender related behaviour
- bandura demonstrated behaviour is learned through observation and vicarious reinforcement,
- meaning gender roles can be influenced by models individuals are exposed to.
- This has important implications for media and education, as it suggests that
-
- promoting diverse and non-stereotypical role models cd reduce rigid gender norms.
- eg, increasing representation of non-traditional gender roles in tv and social media
- may encourage children to adopt a wider range of behaviours, regardless of gender.
- so practical applicability of SLT enhances its value, as not only explains gender development
> but also provides strategies for social change and reduce stigma
52
SLT Culture and gender roles
Cultural differences
- SLT sees gender-role behaviour as largely determined by
- environment and socialisation. Two key areas through wch social norms are transmitted
- and communicated are culture and the media.
.
.
- cross-cultural study of gender roles - Mead; she lived w and observed three tribal communities on New Guinea:
- Mead recorded the behaviours shown by males and females in each group. Both males and females
-
- in Arapesh community showed traits/behaviours stereotypically feminine in western society: gentle and co-operative.
-
- Both males and female in Mundugamor were described as fierce and aggressive, traits wch wd traditionally
- be seen as
masculine in the west. The
-
-Tchambuli showed distinct gender roles for males and females: reversal of traditional western
- sex roles: men were sentimental and emotional,
- while women took decisions and were the providers. concluded that diff cultures
- show differences in gender-related behaviour.
53
SLT Culture and gender roles
Cultural similarities : buss study
- many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles. Cross-cultural research also indicates there are
- universals in the way men/women behave =supports the role of biology.
.
- Buss conducted a survey in 37 countries. Respondents were asked to rate importance of
- a wide range of traits in a potential mate. Men in all countries surveyed rated
- good looks, youth and chastity higher than women did. Meanwhile, women rated
- good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability higher than men did.
.
.
.
>> This supported evolutionary theory that women and men instinctively seek out difft traits in potential mates.
>> For men, good looks/ youth are good indicators of woman's health/fertility, ability to carry and care for a baby.
>> Chastity is important to men bc an unfaithful mate may carry another man's baby:
>> no evolutionary benefit in a man securing survival of someone else's genes.
>
>> For women, a man who has good financial prospects/ is industrious shd be able to provide well for them.
>> Dependability is also important as it wd suggest a man wholl stay around during pregnancy and after babys born.
54
Media and gender roles
Rigid stereotypes (x2)
- evidence that media do provide very clear gender stereotypes that are quite rigid:
> men are independent, ambitious 'advice-givers', whereas women are dependent, unambitious 'advice-seekers' (Bussey and Bandura).
>
> Similarly, a study of TV adverts by Furnham and Farragher found men were more likely to be shown
> in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women were
> often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings: suggests media may play a role
> in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour.
55
Media and gender roles
Info giving
- evidence children w more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more
- gender-stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes. media does more than confirm gender-typical behaviour
- it may also give info to males and females in terms of likely success of adopting these behaviours.
-
- Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases the child's belief
- that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in future (what Bandura called self-efficacy).
56
Influence of culture and media on gender roles ao3 (correlation)
- evidence = correlational. Studies identify relationship between exposure to gendered media and development of gender stereotypes,
- but cannot establish cause and effect: eg individuals who already hold traditional gender views
- may be more likely to consume stereotypical media content. This means
.
.
- it is unclear whether media influences gender roles or simply reflects pre-existing attitudes.
- As a result, the validity of study comc claims that media directly shapes gender roles is reduced.
57
Influence of culture and media on gender roles ao3 (temporal validity)
- research into media influence on gender roles may lack temporal validity (any examples)
- Media representations of gender have changed significantly over time, with
- more recent portrayals showing a wider range of roles and less rigid stereotypes.
-
- means findings from older studies may not accurately reflect influence of modern media on gender development.
- Consequently, explanations based on outdated media portrayals may not be generalisable to contemporary society,
- reducing their overall relevance and generalisability
58
Influence of culture and media on gender roles ao3 (reductionist due to individual diffs)
- explanations focusing on culture/media ignores individual differences in development of gender roles.
- Not all individuals are equally influenced by cultural norms or media representations,
- as factors like personality, upbringing and biological influences also play a role.
-
- eg, some individuals may actively reject stereotypical gender roles despite exposure to them.
- suggests that culture and media explanations may be reductionist, as they
- oversimplify gender development by focusing mainly on high level external influences and neglecting the
- complexity of individual variation - lower level factors like psychological and biological
59
Gender dysphoria and bio explanations
- A small minority of males/females experience a mismatch between their bio sex and sex they 'feel' they are (their gender identity).
- Individuals w gender dysphoria (GD) identify much more w opposite sex than one identified as at birth.
- For many people who experience this, GD is a source of stress and discomfort.
- Many individuals w GD will identify themselves as transgender opt for gender reassignment surgery
- to change their external genitalia to that of the desired sex.
.
.
- Bio explanations
- In categorisation of GD, DSM-5 excludes intersex conditions w a recognised biological basis,
>>such as Klinefelter's syndrome and CAH. its still plausible GD may be subject to some biological influence.s
60
GD- physiological factors (ning zhou)
Physiological factors
- Brain sex theory suggests GD is caused by specific brain structures incompatible w person's bio sex.
- Particular attention has been paid to those areas of brain that are dimorphic,
>> ie, take a diff form in males and females.
.
.
- Ning Zhou studied the Bed nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BSTc)
>> which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and 40% larger in males than females.
>> In post-mortem studies of six male-to-female transgender ppl, BSTc was a similar size to of a typical female brain.
>>
61
GD- genetic factors
- Evidence suggests GD may have a genetic basis. Coolidge assessed 150 twin pairs (100 MZ and 50 DZ)
- for evidence of GD using clinical diagnosis of criteria in DSM-4. prevalence of GD was estimated
- high concordance rate in mz so suggests there is
- a strong heritable component to GD as mz share 100% of genes and vice versa
.
62
GD- social psychological exps (ovesey and pearson)
Social-psychological explanations of GD are based on Freudian theory and insights from cognitive psychology.
.
• Psychoanalytic theory
- Ovesey and Person argued GD in males is caused by child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before
- gender identity has been established. child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion w his mother to relieve anxiety,
- and then danger of separation is removed. consequence of this is that the child, in a very real sense,
- becomes mother and thus adopts a female gender identity. theory has some support;
.
63
GD- cognitive exp (liben and bigler)
Liben and Bigler proposed an extension of Gender Schema Theory:
emphasises individual diffs in gender identity.
-
- theory suggests two pathways of gender development, the dual pathway theory.
- first pathway acknowledges development of gender schema wch then direct
- gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviours as part of 'normal development' (in way Martin and Halverson suggest).
-
- The second personal pathway describes how child's gender attitudes are affected by his or her activity.
- Here, the individual's personal interests may become more
dominant than gender identity,
- and these in turn influence gender schema, eg, a boy who finds himself in a sit where plays with dolls
- may come to believe that playing with dolls is for boys as well as for girls.
.
.
- Events such as this lead to the development of non-sex-typed schema.
- In most people this may lead to androgynous behaviour and a more flexible attitude to gender.
- In a small minority of others, it may lead to the eventual formation of an opposite gender identity (GD)
64
GD ao3 - evidence for and against BSTc
>>support by Kruij
ver: studied same brain tissue + focused on no. of neurons in BSTc rather than volume.
>> Again, six transgender individuals showed a sex-reversed identity pattern w avg BSTc neuron number in female range.
.
.
- claimed BSTc is fully formed at age 5 so any hormone treatment that trans individuals may undergo
- as part of gender reassignment surgery shdnt have a bearing on the BSTc.
- assumption challenged by Hulshof Pol who found transgender hormone therapy did affect
- size of the BSTc. So observed differences in the BST may be due to hormone therapy rather than being a cause of GD
65
GD ao3 - for and against paychoanalytic theory
.
- Stoller reports that, in interviews with GD males, they were seen to display overly close mother-son relationships
- that would lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long term.
.
.
- Issues w psychoanalytic theory: Ovesey and Person's explanation does not provide an adequate account
- of GD in females as the theory only applies to male transgender individuals.
- In any case, Rekers suggested gender disturbance in boys is more likely to be associated w absence of the father
-
- than fear of separation from the mother. Furthermore, assumption that GD
- is caused by separation anxiety in childhood is very hard to test. the fantasises wch trigger GD
- and centre on the mother, are thought to occur at an unconscious level: means individuals who were
- subject to these fantasies may not be aware of them!.
66
GD ao3 - support for genetic exp
- Similarly, Heylens compared 20 MZ twins with 20 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed w GD
- found that (40%) of MZ twins were
concordant for GD compared to 0% of the DZs wch wd indicate
- a role for genetic factors in the development of GD.
67
GD ao3 - liben and biglers methodology
- Research supporting this theory often relies on self-report and observational studies,
- are prone to bias and may lack reliability. Also the cog explanation is descriptive rather than causal:
> tells patterns of thinking and behavior but cannot identify why gender schemas develop atypically in the first place.
> as a correlation
A Level Psychology 🧠
flashcards
Decks in class (15)
# Cards
-
Section 2: Memory61
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Section 7: Research Methods84
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Section 1: Social Influence39
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Section 5: Approaches In Psychology85
-
Psychopathology41
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Research Methods: inferential Statistics11
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Attachment65
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Exam Technique (rm, 16mks)64
-
Issues And Debates40
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Biopsychology57
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paper 2 exam questions!12
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paper 3 exam questions!4
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Schizophrenia79
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Forensic Psychology85
-
Gender67
