1
Q
attachment
A
a strong, enduring, emotional and reciprocal bond between 2 people especially an infant and caregiver
2
Q
New born alert phases
A
from birth babies and mothers/ Primary care giver spend a lot of time in intense and pleasurable interactions
babies have periodic alert phases and signals they are ready for interactions which mothers respond to around 2/3 of the time.
3
Q
international synchrony
A
the temporal coordination of micro level social behaviours. some actions simultaneously.
mother and infant interact in such a way that their actions and emotions mirror the other
4
Q
when is international sychrony first displayed
A
in infants as young as 2 weeks old
5
Q
International synchrony Meltzof and Moore (1977)
A
adult displayed 1 of 3 facial expressions or 1 of 3 distinct gestures and the child’s response was filmed
an association was found between the expression/ gesture and the action of the child
6
Q
International synchrony Isabella et al
A
observed 30 mothers and infants to asses degree of synchrony and quality of attachment
high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality attachment.
7
Q
international synchrony is important in
A
development of attachment
high synchrony = higher quality attachment
8
Q
reciprocity
A
where one person responds to the other
from 3 months reciprocal interactions increase
it involves the close attention to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions
both mother and infant can initiate interactions.
9
Q
evaluation of caregiver interactions (5)
A
- hard to know what is happening when observing. we cannot get the infants perspective
- well controlled procedures: experiments were filmed. babies don’t know their being observed. better validity
- purpose of synchrony and reciprocity: it is simple a description of the two not how they occur. some evidence that synchrony is helpful in the development of mother infant attachment, stress responses, empathy, language and moral development.
- socially sensitive: child may be at disadvantage because of child rearing practises, mothers who work.
- value to society: international synchrony foundation for high quality attachments lead to valuable methods for improving and developing mother- infant attachments.
10
Q
secondary attachment are most likely to be formed with the
A
father
75% if infants studied formed attachments with father by the age of 18 months
11
Q
role of father. Grossmann
A
- carried out longitudinal study looking at parent’s behaviour and its relationship to the quality of child attachment into teens
- quality of attachment with the father was less important in attachment type of the teenagers than quality of attachment with mother
- therefore fathers may be less important in long term emotional development
12
Q
father role in attachment
A
quality of father’s play with infants was related to attachment
suggests fathers have a different role in attachment one more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with nurturing
13
Q
fathers as primary caregivers Field
A
when fathers take on the role of the main caregiver they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers
filmed 4 month old babies and found that primary caregiver fathers like mothers, spent more time smiling imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers
14
Q
level of response is more important than gender
A
- smiling, imitating and holding infants are behaviours that appear to be important in building attachments
fathers can be a more nurturing attachment figure - the key to attachment relationship is the levels of responsiveness not gender
15
Q
Evaluation of role of father
A
- research interested in different questions: some focus on fathers as secondary caregivers other focus them as primary caregiver.
- evidence undermines idea father have distinct role: children growing up in same sex or single are not different
- no clear answers about fathers as primary attachment. related to traditional gender roles or could be female hormones that mean women are more nurturing are more commonly primary attachment figures
- social biases: preconceptions and stereotypes about fathers cause observer bias. hard to disentangle actual role from social biases about their role
- economic implications: mother’s pressurised to stay at home. not to contribute to the economy. research comforts women in making a decision.
16
Q
shaffer’s stages of attachment
A
1, asocial stage: fist weeks cant distinguish between objects and humans
- indiscriminate: 2-7 month. preference for people. accept comfort from any adult no separation or stranger anxiety
- specific: 7 months + display stranger and separation anxiety from PAF
- multiple: 1 year+ form secondary attachment
17
Q
A social stage
A
first stage
first weeks
recognising and forming preferences to familiar adults
can’t distinguish between objects and humans
happy in presence of other humans
18
Q
indiscriminate attachment
A
the second state
2-7 months
preference for people rather than objects
recognise and prefer familiar adults
accepts comfort from any adults
does not show separation or stranger anxiety
19
Q
specific attachment
A
3rd stage
7 months +
display stranger and separation anxiety from 1 particular adult
this is the primary attachment figure
not necessarily the person child spends most time but one that offers most interaction.
20
Q
multiple attachment
A
4th stage
1 year +
form secondary attachment with whom they spend time with
21
Q
schaffer and Emerson study
A
procedure: 60 infants from working class Glasgow
babies and mothers visited at home every month for a year and at 18 months
separation and stranger anxiety measured by asking mothers 50% of babies showed separation anxiety between 25 and 32 weeks.
primary attachment mother
attachment was caregiver most interactive and sensitive to infant signals and facial expression i.e reciprocity
22
Q
evaluation of shaffer’s stages of attachment
A
- external validity: baby behaviour unlikely to effected by observer, observations made by parent. participants behaved naturally whole being observed.
- longitudinality: better validity have less confounding variables due to participant differences in cross sectional
- problems with how multiple attachment assessed: just because they are distressed could be playmate.
- problems with asocial year: young babies are immobile so it is different to make judgements based on observation. babies may be quite social but because of flawed methods seem a social
- timing of multiple attachments: some cultures multiple attachments appear from outset. collectivist
23
Q
Lorenz
A
aim: to study for imprinting in geese
- classical experiment randomly divided eggs
half hatched with mother other half with Lorenz
findings:
- Lorenz group followed him everywhere and mother’s group followed mother even when groups mixed.
critical period for imprinting was the first few hours
if imprinting did not happen in this time it never did
24
Q
Lorenz and sexual imprinting
A
birds that imprint on a human showed courtship behaviours towards humans
a peacock reared with giant tortoises sowed courtship behaviours with tortoises
sexual imprinting occurs whereby the birds acquire a template of desirable characteristics required in a mate.
25
evaluation of Lorenz
- hard to generalise to humans- mammalian attachment system is very different to birds. e.g emotional attachment
- concept of imprinting: chicks imprinting to yellow gloves would try to mate with them. animals are born with innate mechanisms to imporint on a moving object in a critical window
- some of observations and conclusions questioned: chicks and rubber gloves after experience they learned to mate with own kind. effects of imprinting are not as long lasting
26
Harlow's Monkeys
- investigate importance of contact and comfort inn attachment
procedure: 16 baby rhesus monkeys with 2 wire mothers. in one condition milk was dispensed by wire mother
condition 2 dispensed by cloth mother
findings:
monkeys sort comfort from the cloth mothers regardless of which gave milk. comfort more important than food in attachment behaviour.
27
Harlow: maternally deprived monkeys
- maternally deprived monkeys were more aggressive, less sociable, bred less, neglected their young or attacked their young
28
Harlow: critical period
a mother figure had to be introduced in a 90 day period
29
Evaluation of Harlow
- important practical value: helped social works understanding risk of child abuse and the importance of attachment figures
- ethics: monkey similar to humans and suffered greatly.. Harlow was aware of the suffering he caused. however findings might have enough significant important to allow for such procedures.
- generalising: monkeys are not human. human babies develop speech and communication influences formation of attachment. can't generalise findings
30
classical conditioning
learning to associate 2 stimuli together so that you begin to respond the same way you already responded to the other
31
the role of classical conditioning in attachment
UCS (food) --> UCR (pleasure)
UCS (food) + NI (mother) --> UR (pleasure)
CS (mother --> CR (pleasure)
32
opperant conditioning
learning to repeat a behaviour, or to not repeat, depending on its consequences
if behaviour produces pleasant consequences it is likely to be repeated again
if consequences is negative behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
33
role of operant conditioning
from infants perspective: +ve reinforcement
crying --> +ve response from caregiver --> crying is reinforced
from caregiver's perspective: -ve reinforcement
caregiver responds --> infant stops crying --> more pleasant so responding is reinforced.
34
positive reinforcement
is where someone receives something pleasant from doing a behaviour
35
negative reinforcement
behaviour results in the removal of something unpleasant
36
internal working model of relationships
Bowlby montropic theory
- child forms a mental representation of the relationship with paf
- this serves as a template for what relationships are like
child experiences loving relationship --> future loving relationships
poor treatment relationship PAF --> poor relationships in future expect treatment or treats others
affects childs ability to parent
37
drive reduction
hunger is primary drive an innate biological motivator
motivated to eat reducing drive
attachment is secondary drive learned by an association between caregiver and satisfaction of primary drive.
as care givers provide food primary drive of hunger generalised to them
38
evaluation of learning theory of attachment
- animal studies evidence against: comfort more important
- human research against: shaffer and emmerson PAF was the mother even when others did feeding.
- ignores other factors: cannot account for sensitivity and international synchrony, reciprocity studies show importance
- element still involved: many other aspects of development associated by condition. primary caregiver associated with comfort and interaction
- SLT: parent's teach children to love by modelling rewarding with approval. behaviour learnt as a result of interaction. fits with importance of interactional synchrony
39
monotropic
Bowlby
emphasis on the child's attachment to one caregiver
this attachment is different from others and more important
this person is the mother although not necessary bio one.
40
law of continuity
the more constant a childs care the better the quality of attachment
41
law of accumulated separation
effects of every separation adds up.
| so the safest does is zero
42
social releasers
innate cute behaviours act as a social releaser because their purpose is to activate the adult attachment system
reciprocal process
both had innate predisposition to become attached and social releasers trigger that response
43
critical period
bowlby
critical period is 2 years where the infant attachment system is active
could be called sensitive period
a child is maximally sensitive up to the age of 2 years
if an attachment has not formed in this time they will find it mushc harder to form one later
44
evaluation of Bowlby monotropic theory
- mixed evidence for montoropy: shaffer and emerson found a significant minority formed multiple attachments at the same time. mother attachment better predictor due to PA not different quality
- support social releasers: when social releasers ignored babies were distressed and motionless strong response supports
- support internal working model: interview of mothers and assessed attachment. those reported bad attachments with their mother had a bad attachment with their own child
- monotropy social sensitive: feminist blaming the mother and life choices
- overemphasise role of attachment: temperament is more important. temperamental difference rather than quality of attachment explain latter behaviours.
45
aimsworth strange situation
aims
type of investigation
developed strange situation as a method to assess the quality of child's attachment to a caregiver
controlled observation procedure in lab
with 2 way mirror in which psychologists could observe infants
46
ainsworth strange situation
| 5 categories used to judge attachment quality and type
1. proximity seeking
2. exploration and secure base behaviour
3. stranger anxiety
4. separation anxiety
5. response to reunion with caregiver after separation for short period of time
47
ainsworth strange situation
| procedure
1. child encouraged to explore
2. stranger enters interacts with caregiver and infant
3. caregiver leaves
4. the caregiver returns, stranger leaves
5. caregiver leaves child alone
6. the stranger returns
7. the caregiver returns
48
secure attachment
60-75% of British toddlers
- child happy to explore but seeks proximity with care giver (secure base)
- shows moderate separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
- requires and accepts comfort from caregiver on reunion
49
insecure avoidant
20 - 25% British toddlers
- child explores freely but does not seek proximity (no secure base)
- shows little / no separation and stranger anxiety
- does not require comfort at reunion stage
50
insecure resistant
3% of British toddlers
- child explores less and seeks greater proximity
- shows considerable stranger and separation anxiety
- resist comfort when reunited with caregiver
51
evaluation of Ainsworth's strange situation
- predictive validity: attachment types predict later development validity of the concept explains subsequent outcomes
- good inter-rater reliability: different observers agree same 94% of the time. controlled conditions and categories easy to observe
- culture bond test: attachment behaviour different meaning in different cultures.
- temperament confounding variable: more important influence on behaviour. questions validity
- other attachment types: disorganised attachment mix of avoidant and resistant behaviour
52
Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg meta analysis
cultural variations strange situation
32 studies across different countries
Britain secure 75% china secure 50%
insecure resistant more common in collective
Britain 3%. 30% in Israel
insecure avoidant: most common in Germany and least in Japan
- variation in same country was 150% greater than those between countries
53
simanelli et al
cultural variations
assessed 76 12 months olds
mothers reasonably varied in terms of education
50% secure. 36% insecure avoidant
lower rate of secure attachment in previous studies. due to increasing no. of mothers working long hours using professional child care.
cultural changes make dramatic differences in patterns of attachment
54
takahashi
cultural variations
- 60 middle class Japanese infants and mothers
0% insecure avoidant
32% insecure resistant
68% secure
90% stop due to extreme infant stress
- Japanese infants rarely separated from mothers and extremely impolite to avoid interacting with others.
55
evaluation of cultural variation in attachment
- large samples in meta analysis reduces impact of anomalous results. improve internal validity
- samples unrepresentative of culture: countries do not equate to culture. specific methods of child rearing can't make generalisation
- method assessment is biased: research imposes USA test on other cultures (imposed etic)
- cross cultural differences due to media: creating different parenting norms
- temperament confounding variables
56
continuous emotional care
Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation
| - care from mother or mother substitute is necessary for normal emotional and intellectual development.
57
separation
bowlby theory of maternal deprivation
| separation means the child not being physically in the presence of primary attachment figure.
58
deprivation
bowlby theory of maternal deprivation
- deprivation means losing emotional care as a result of separation
deprivation can be avoided if alternative emotional care is offered this separation doesn't always cause deprivation
59
critical period of separation
bowlby theory of maternal deprivation
30 months
if a child is separated from mother (without substitute emotional care) for an extended time during 1st 30 months, then the psychological damage is inevitable
60
how does deprivation effect intellectual development
Bowlby theory of maternal deprivation
if a child is deprived of maternal care for too long during critical period they will suffer mental retardation and abnormal low IQ
Goldfast found lower IQ in children from institutions compared to faster children
61
how does deprivation effect emotional development
lack of emotional care may lead to affection less psychopathy the inability to experience guilt or strong emotions for others
this prevents the person developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality
affection less psychopathy.
62
Bowlby's 44 thieves study
procedure: sample of 44 delinquent teens accused of stealing.
families were interviewed to established prolonged separation
all thieves interview showed signs of affection less psychopathy
findings: 14 could be described as affection less psychopaths. of these 12 experienced prolonged separations n first 2 years. only 3 of the remaining 30 had experienced separation.
this suggests prolonged early separation / deprivation causes affection less psychopathy.
63
what are the 2 effects of institutionalisation
Romanian orphan studies
- dis-inhibited attachment
- damage to intellectual development
64
dis-inhibited attachment
a child is equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know well or who are strangers
this may be an adaptation to multiple caregivers
65
mental retardation
damage to intellectual development
| effect is not as pronounced if the child are adopted before 6 months of age.
66
Rutter's English and Romanian adoptee ERA study
| procedure
- researchers followed group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted to Britain
- longitudinal. test the extent to which good care can make up for poor early experiences
physical cognitive an emotional development has been assessed at 4, 6, 11 and 15 years
the study followed a control group of 52 adopted British children.
67
Rutter's ERA study
| findings and conclusions
half of orphans showed mental retardation when they come to the UK. at age 11 recovery rates were related to age of adoption
before 6 months IQ 102
between 6 months and 2 years IQ 86
those adopted after 2 years mean IQ 77
children adopted after 6 months were clingy, attention seeking and indiscriminate affection
rare in those adopted before 6 months
findings support sensitive period in development of attachment. failure to form before 6 months long lasting effects.
68
Burcharest Early Intervention Project.
| Zeanah et al
procedure: used strange situation to asses attachment in 95 children aged 12 -31 months who spent most of their lives in institutional care
they were compared to a control group of 5 kids who had never experienced institutional care
findings:
- 19% of institutionalised securely attached
- 65% classified with disorganised attachment
69
Romanian orphan studies evaluation
- important practical application: led to improvements in institutions change key workers develop normal attachments
- fewer confounding variables: studies before children experienced trauma. without these increased internal validity
- generalisability: conditions so bad results can be applied as unusual situation variables cant apply to other situations
- Not randomly assigned: did not interfere with the adoption process likely those adopted were more sociable. Bucharest did randomly assign to remove confounding variables but this raises ethical issues
- long term effect: those who lag behind may still catch up. early adopted may experience problems later in life.
70
good experience of attachment =
good relationship expectations
a child whose first experience is a loving relationship with reliable caregiver assumes that this is how all relationships are meant to be
they will then seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them.
71
bad experience of attachment =
bad relationship expectations
a child with bad experiences of their first attachment will bring these experiences to later relationships
this means they struggle to form relationships in the first place or they do not behave appropriately in them
72
how does secure attachment in infancy affect friendships and bullying
securely attached infants tend to go on to form the best quality of childhood friendships
securely attached infants are less likely to be involved in bullying whereas in secure-avodiant children are most likely to be the victims and insecure- resistant most likely to be the bullies.
73
how does internal working model affect parenting
people base their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment type tends to be passed on through generations of a family
74
Hazan and Shaver love quiz
influence of early attachment on later relationships
researchers analysed 620 replies american local newspaper
quiz assessed different aspects
- general love experiences
- respondents current and most important relationship
-attachment type 56% secure 25% avoidant 119% resistant
attachment type reflected in romantic relationships
- secure respondents were most likely to have good and longer lasting romantic relationships
- avoidant tended to be jealous and fear intimacy
75
evaluation of influence of early attachment on later relationships
- evidence on continuity is mixed: assessed infant and adolescent attachment with very little relationship found.
- validity issues: test attachment using interview ans questions retroactive bias views
- indicates association: temperament may effect. alternative explanations. internal working model may not cause outcome
- exaggerated: probabilistic. does not doom people just increases risk of problems too pessimistic
- theoretical problem: Internal working model is unconscious and un-falsifiable no direct evidence. participants answers depend on conscious understanding.
76
evaluation of Bowbly theory of maternal deprivation
- evidence flawed. studied war orphans who were traumatised and had poor after care. these factors were more important. poor quality institutions deprived of many aspects of care. Bowbly interviewed himself bias.
- counter evidence: Lewis replicated 44 thieves. early prolonged maternal separation did not predict criminality or different relationships. limitation.
- later research sensitive period. Czech twins. after care fully recovered. positive outcomes. sensitive rather than critical as not permanent
- animal studies. separating baby rats from mother even for a day had permanent effect on social development. extent of generalisation
- didn't distinguish between deprivation and privation. privation is the failure to form any attachment. Bowbly misdiagnosed. many 44 thieves did not form attachments in the first place.
Psychology A level
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