1
Q
sex
A
is a biological status (innate)
biologically determined by their genetic make-up.
chromosomes influence hormonal and anatomical differences that distinguish males and females (e.g reproductive organs, body shape and hair growth)
2
Q
gender
A
is a psychosocial status (nurture)
gender, described as masculine or feminine reflects all the attitudes, behaviours and roles we associate with being male or female.
whilst biological sex cannot change despite sex change surgery, gender is more fluid and an individual can also become more masculine or feminine.
3
Q
GID
A
gender identity disorder
for most people their biological sex and gender identity correspond.
for others their biological sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as being.
gender reassignment surgery allows people to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity.
4
Q
sex-role stereotypes
A
social expectations
are shared by a culture or group and consist of expectations regarding how males and females should behave.
these expectations are transmitted through a society and reinforced by members if it.
5
Q
are sex role stereotypes valid
A
some expectations have some basis in reality
e.g in many cases it might be the male in a heterosexual couple who is responsible for DIY whilst the female buys and sends the birthday cards from both of them
however their is no biological reason for this to be the case
many sex role stereotypes are incorrect assumptions and can lead to sexist and damaging attitudes
e.g the stereotype that women are too emotional to cope with high powered jobs.
6
Q
sex role stereotypes in the media
A
a study of TV adverts found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings
this along with other studies demonstrates both the existence of sex role stereotypes and the role the media has in reinforcing them
7
Q
androgyny
A
is a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics
everyday understanding relates to appearance as being neither male or female
psychologically it refers to the presence of a balance of masculine and feminine traits, behaviours and attitudes.
8
Q
androgyny as a positive attribute
Bem
A
Bem suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well being
individuals who have balance of masculine and feminine traits are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations
androgyny needs to be distinguished from over representation of opposite sex characteristics
e.g a female who is very masculine would not exhibit the necessary balance of male and female traits.
9
Q
measuring androgyny
Bem sex role inventory (BSM)
different item categories
A
items in the BSRI are masculine, feminine or neutral.
masculine items include dominant, competitive and athletic
female items include gentle, affectionate and sympathetic
neutral items are characteristics which do not apply more specifically to one sex than another, including sincere, friendly and unpredictable.
10
Q
BSRI number of questions and how the answer is rated
A
BSRI has 60 questions
20 feminine, 20 masculine, 20 neutral
participants use a 7 point scale to rate each trait
where 1 is never true and 7 is always true
11
Q
BSRI
4 categories
A
- masculine. results from a high score on masculine items and low score on feminine items
- Feminine. results from high feminine score and low masculine score
- Androgynous. results from high score of both masculine and feminine scales
- unclassified. results from a low score on both masculine and feminine scales.
12
Q
evaluations of androgyny and BSRI
A
- reliable and valid. developed with 50 male and 50 female judging 200 triats in terms of gender desirability. to 20 used. piloted on 1000 students score reflected gender identity. follow up test retest reliability.
- link between well being and androgyny challenged. some researchers ague those who display more masculine are better adjusted as these are more valued in western society. did not account to social and cultural context.
- cannot be reduced to single score. alternative personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) which additionally measures instrumentality and expressionism. gender identity is a more global concept and to fully understanding we must consider person’s interests and perception of ability. over simple.
- temporal and cultural validity
developed 40 years ago expectations have changed. original judges who expressed ideas were all from US. - questionnaires are subjective and biased.
assumes a degree of self understanding. their answers determined by response bias. social desirability bias rater choose what shows them most favourable.
13
Q
chromosome 23
A
determines biological sex
female is XX
male is XY
a baby’s sex is determined by whether the sperm to fertilise the egg is an X or a Y chromosome
14
Q
Y chromosome
A
carries a gene called the sex determining region Y (SRY).
this causes the testes to develop and androgens to be produced in a male embryo.
without androgens the embryo develops into a female.
15
Q
what controls gender development
A
hormones
prenatally hormones act upon brain development and cause development of the reproductive organs.
at puberty a burst of hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair.
male and females produce the same hormones but in different concentrations
16
Q
testosterone
A
controls the development of male sex organs from the 5th month of fetal development.
testosterone is also linked to aggressive behaviour in both genders, in humans and animals.
e.g Van de Poll et al showed that female rats injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive.
17
Q
oestrogen
A
controls female sexual characteristics including menstruation.
during the menstrual cycle some women experienced heightened emotional and irritability pre menstrual syndrome
in extreme cases PMS has been used as a defence for violent behaviour in women.
18
Q
oxytocin
A
women typically produce oxytocin in larger amounts than men
- stimulates lactation post birth
- reduces the stress hormone cortisol
- facilitates bonding
- may explain why females are more interested in intimacy in relationships then men, though amounts are the same in me n and women when kissing and cuddling.
19
Q
evaluation of role of chromosomes and hormones
A
- research support. found in prison populations offenders with highest levels testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. male to female transsexuals (having oestrogen treatment) showed decreases in aggression and visual spatial skills.
- contradictory evidence. males 10 weekly injections of testosterone / placebo and found no sig. difference in agg. demonstrated sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender related behaviour.
- controversial PMS as medical. social construction. feminist claim example of medicalisation of the lives of women. questioned category on grounds that it stereotypes female experience and emotion. suggests that there are over exaggeration.
- overemphasis on nature. SLT points to social context i learning gender identity and role. bio cannot explain cross cultural differences.
- bio oversimplify a complex concept. reduces gender to chromosomes and hormones ignoring alternates. others stress thought processes or childhood experiences. ignores other possible influences.
20
Q
Klinefelter’s syndrome
A
XXY chromosomal structure
about 1 in 750 males have this.
individuals who have this condition are biological males with male anatomy but an additional X chromosome
10% of cases are identified prenatally but up to 66% may not be aware of it.
diagnosis often comes about accidentally via a medical examination for some unrelated condition
21
Q
Klinefelter’s syndrome
physical characteristics
A
- reduced body hair compared to a typical male
- some breast development at puberty (gynaecomastia)
- underdeveloped genitals
- more susceptible to health problems that are usually associated with females, such as breast cancer.
22
Q
Klinefelter’s syndrome
psychological characteristics
A
- poorly developed language skills and reading ability
- passive, shy and lacking interest in sexual activity
- tend not to respond well to stressful situations
- problems with what are called executive functions, such as problem solving.
23
Q
Turners syndrome
A
XO chromosomal structure
1 in 5000 females have this.
caused by an absence of one of the 2 X chromosomes leading to 45 rather than 46 chromosomes
24
Q
Turner’s syndrome
physical characteristics
A
- no menstrual cycle as their ovaries fail to develop leaving them sterile.
- a broad shield chest and no developing of breasts at puberty
- characteristics low set ears and a webbed neck
- hips are not much bigger than the waist
25
Turner's syndrome
| psychological characteristics
- higher than average reading ability
- lower than average performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks
- tendency to be socially immature.
26
evaluation of atypical sex chromosome patterns
1. contributed to nature v nurture debate.
comparing chromosome typical and atypical individuals highlights psychological and behavioural differences. e.g turner' syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability.
2. lack of causal relationship. possible impact of environment / social influences. e.g social immaturity may be due to the way others respond to their physical immaturity. we cannot assume from this research alone that observed psychological and behavioural differences.
3. research has practical applications. showed individuals identified and treated at young age had significant benefits. further research increase earlier diagnosis. understanding of issues. direct benefit to the people and understanding
4. sample unrepresentative and atypical. individuals with unusual conditions are unlikely to be treated in the same way. hard to dis-tangle nature nurture. overall this makes it difficult to generalise cases
5. typical sex and gender been exaggerated. studies identify significantly more differences within the sexes than between them, questioning whether there are typical behaviours. limited.
27
cognitive developmental approach
Kohlberg's theory
cognitive because a child's thinking about their gender is emphasised
developmental because it is concerned with changes in thinking over time
28
Kohlberg theory
| gender development parallels intellectual development
Piaget proposed that the way a child thinks changes with age, they become capable of more logical and abstract thinking
this can be applied to gender development
Kohlberg identified 3 stages in gender development related to Piaget's ideas
there are gradual rather than sudden transitions between stages and consequently the ages are approximate.
29
Kohlberg's theory
| stages
- stage 1: gender identity
- stage 2: gender stability
- stage 3: gender constancy
30
Kohlberg's theory
| stage 1
gender identity
from about 2 years old
children are able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl and are assumed to have developed gender identity
by 3 years most children are able to identify other people as male or female, and can select the correct picture when asked; ' which one of these is like you? '
their understanding of gender appears limited to labelling and they have no sense of permanence of gender
for instance a boy at this stage may say ' when I grow up I will be a mummy'
31
Kohlberg's theory
| stage 2
gender stability
from about 4 years
children realise that they will stay the same gender
however, they still find it challenging to apply this logic to:
- other people (e.g the idea that a man remains a man even if he grows long hair)
- other situations (e.g believing that people change sex if they engage in activities which are more often associated with the opposite gender, such as a female builder, or male nurse)
32
Kohlberg's theory
| stage 3
gender constancy
from about 6 years
children now recognise that gender remains constant and consistent across time and situations
and can apply this to other people as well as to themselves
they may assumed by someone with external appearance of the other sex (e.g a man in a dress) but they understand he is still a man.
33
gender consistency marks the search for
gender appropriate role model
gender constancy also marks the point when children begin to seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
Kohlberg suggests that once the child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage they look for evidence which confirms it.
34
evaluation of Kohlberg's theory
| strengths
- supporting research evidence. showed children images of males and females doing same tasks young children spent equal time watching both. children at the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at the same sex because they identified with them. supports idea changes way they process information.
- support from biological
stages influenced by changes in brain and subsequent cognitive and intellectual maturation. theory supported by cross cultural evidence of stages. universality
35
evaluation of Kohlberg's theory
| limitations
- gender appropriate behaviour begins earlier. found children as young as 4 years old reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys. contracts final stage not till 6 years. wrong because acquire gender appropriate concepts earlier.
- validity of original interviews questionable. interviews of young as 2 -3. questions tailored to age. may not acknowledged that their ideas about gender may be more complex then they could articulate.
- SLT challenges focus on maturation
evidence boys have less flexible gender concept of gender role ans show greater resistance to opposite sex activities. cannot be explained by maturation. SLT may play a more significant role. too simple focus on socialisation more appropriate.
36
gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson's gender schema theory (GST) like Kohlberg theory, is also cognitive developmental theory.
like Kohlberg's theory, GST also suggests that children\ actively structure their own learning of gender
this contrasts with SLT which suggests that children passively observe and imitate role models.
37
gender schema (GST)
schema are mental constructs that develop via experience (with some basic, limited ones present from birth)
they are used by us to organise our knowledge
gender schema contain what we know in relation to gender and gender appropriate behaviour
first a child establishes a gender identity (around 2-3 years)
the child then begins to look around for further information to develop their schema.
38
when does the search for gender appropriate information occur in the GST
Martin and Halverson idea is that the search for gender appropriate information occurs much earlier than Kohlberg suggested
Kohlberg proposed that a child first needed to achieve gender constancy (at around 6-7 years) but GST proposes a more gradual and earlier development process.
39
gender schema develop and determine what (GST)
- behaviour
gender appropriate schema expand over time to include a range of behaviours and personality traits based on stereotypes. (e.g boys liking trucks and girls liking dolls)
the schema direct the child's behaviour (e.g I am a boy so I play with trucks') this reinforces existing ideas about gender
by 6 years of age children have acquired a rather fixed and stereotypical idea of what is appropriate for their gender.
40
ingroup and outgroup information
| GST
- children pay more attention to, and have better understanding of, the schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroup) than those of the opposite sex (outgroup)
ingroup identity bolsters the child's level of self esteem as there is always a tendency to judge ingroups more positively
at around 8 years of age children develop elaborate schema for both genders
41
evaluation of gender schema theory
| strengths
- research support. children under 6 remembered more photographs of gender consistent than inconsistent behaviour. they tended to change the sex of the inconsistent person. children under 4 demonstrated strongly sex typed behaviours and attitudes.
- explain young children's rigid gender beliefs. idea of ingroup schema explain why discount info conflicting with existing schema in favour of info that confirms ingroup schema. display ingroup bias pay more attention to relevant info to their own experience.
- GST can complement Kohlberg's theory. suggest gender schema and gender constancy are different processes. schema relates to organisation of memory. constancy is about motivation once firm idea of identity motivated to engage in gender appropriate activities.
42
evaluation of gender schema theory
| limitations
- importance of schema exaggerated. focus on cognitive factors at expense of social factors. overlooking these factors means that the theory does not explain why gender schema development and take the form that they do. oversimplifies
- no link between schema and behaviour
prediction is that schema determine behaviour. as such gender behaviour can be challenged by challenging schema or stereotypes. but schema do not always determine behaviour.
43
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Freud's psychodynamic developmental theory explains 5 psycho-sexual stages, oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital.
pre-phallic stage: children have no concept of gender identity. they are bisexual in the sense that they are neither masculine nor feminine
phallic stage: around 3 - 6 years, determines gender development, boys = Oedipus complex, Girls = Electra complex.
44
Oedipus complex
boys
during the phallic stage boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother. they want their mother for themselves
thus they feel a jealous hatred for their father who has what the boy desires (the mother)
boys recognise that their fathers is more powerful. they fear that, on discovering their desire for their mother, their father will castrate them. castration anxiety.
resolution: boys gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father
45
Electra complex
Girls
during the phallic stage girls feel competition with their mother for their father's love.
girls also resent their mother because they believe that she is responsible for their lack of a penis (penis envy)
resolution: girls acknowledge they will never have the penis they desire. they substitute this desire for have their own children and through this they finally identify with their mother and her gender.
46
psychodynamic
| identification with same sex parent leads to internalisation
boys adopt the attitudes and values of their father, and girls adopt those of their mother
Freud referred to this process as internalisation of parents identity. this happens all at once
47
Little Hans case study
little Hans was a 5 year old boy with a morbid fear of being bitten by a horse. his fear appeared to stem from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in the street.
Freud's interpretation was that Han's fear of horses represented his actual fear of being castrated by his father because of Han's love for his mother
Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via displacement ( a defence mechanism)
48
evaluation of the psychodynamic explanation
1. lack of support for Oedipus. predicts more punitive father is, the more roust son gender identity; found that boys with more liberal fathers tend to be mores secure in their masculine identity.
2. does not fully explain female development. penis envy criticised as merely reflecting era. argued men's womb envy was more prominent. based on desire to be like men
3. child having different gender parents. theory assumes kids require both female and male parents for normal development. single parent and gay/ transsexual all developed normal identity (1 out of 37 raised by gay/ trans did not have normal) suggests that typical gender development does not require 2 different gender parents.
4. lack scientific rigour. based on unconscious concepts un-falsifiable. pseudo-scientific as ideas cant be falsified. less value than empirically tested ones
5. disagrees with other theories. before age of 6 bisexual in contrast 2-4 years in Kohlberg underestimated the complexity and gradual process
49
social learning theory (SLT)
acknowledges the role of social context in gender development
gender behaviour is learned from observing others and being reinforced for the imitation of the behaviour
SLT draws attention to the influence of the environment (nurture) in shaping gender development. influences can include peers, parents, teachers, culture and media
50
gender appropriate behaviours are deferentially reinforced (SLT)
children are reinforced for gender appropriate behaviour
e.g boys may be praised for being active and assertive and punished for being passive or gentle
differential reinforcement explains why boys and girls learn distinctly different gender behaviours, they are reinforced for different behaviours, which they then reproduce.
51
role of vicarious reinforcement in gender development
if the consequences of another person's behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child (e.g if a girls sees her mother being complimented when wearing a pretty dress and make up)
52
role of vicarious punishment in gender development
if the consequences of behaviours are seen to be unfavourable (i.e punished), behaviour is less likely to be imitated (e.g if a little boys sees another boy teased for displaying feminine or sissy behaviour they are unlikely to copy it)
53
role of role models in gender development
a child will identify with people around them that they perceive to be like me or like someone ' I want to be'
these role models tend to be:
- part of child's intermediate environment (parents, teachers, siblings etc)
- in the media
- attractive, high status
- the same sex as the child.
54
the 2 ways in which modelling can occur. SLT
1. a mother may model stereotypical feminine behaviour when tidying the house or preparing dinner
2. when a girl copies her mother setting the table, or attempts to feed her doll using a toy bottle, she is modelling the behaviour she has observed
55
mediational processes involved in gender development. SLT
1. attention: e.g, a little boy might follow closely what his favourite football player does
2. Retention: remembering the skills of the footballer and trying to reproduce these when he plays
3. Motivation: desire to be like his hero
4. Motor reproduction: be physically capable of doing it.
56
evaluation of social learning theory as explanation of gender development. strengths
- evidence for differential reinforcement. observed adults with 4-6 month who were dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girl's clothes. babies assumed to be boys were encouraged to be adventurous and active. girls were reinforced for passivity and given dolls and praised for being pretty. gender appropriate behaviour stamped at early age through differential reinforcement
- changing gender roles. stereo typically masculine and feminine behaviour is now less rigid. explain shifts in social norms leading to changes in what's reinforced. no corresponding change in people's basic bio. offers more complete explanation
57
evaluation of social learning theory
| limitations
- does not explain developmental processes. SLT acknowledges physical and intellectual age limitations on gender related behaviours but generally implies that modelling of gender appropriate behaviour can occur at any age. despite observing at early age selection and imitation comes later. thus the influences of age on gender development not properly considered.
- not fully consider biological factors. David Reimer raised as a female but had a male identity suggests not possible to override biological influences. accept that there are innate differences reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectation. provides partial explanation. interactionist account.
- cannot explain unconscious influences
both SLT and Freud explain gender development through identification. SLT mediational processes are conscious whereas Freud is unconscious. assumption that gender behaviour is determined by factors within control limitation
58
what is consider nature or nurture in terms of gender behaviour
nature: if a gender behaviour is conisstent across cultures we consider it innate or biological
nurture: if a gender behaviour is culturally specific we consider this is due to the influence of shared norms and socialisation.
59
the role of nurture. Mead's research
Mead's research on tribal groups of New Guinea supported the cultural determination of gender roles
- In some groups women were gentle and responsive (similar to western stereotype of femininity)
- in others they were aggressive and hostile (similar to western stereotype of masculinity)
- but in some the women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be decorative (reverse of western gender behaviour)
60
the role of nature - Buss's research
found consistent mate preferences in 37 countries studied across all continents. In all cultures:
- women sought men offering wealth and resources
- men looked for youth and physical attractiveness
Munroe and Munroe found that most societies division of labour is organised along gender lines
61
role models in the media
children are most likely to imitate role models who are the same sex as they are and who are engaging in gender appropriate behaviour.
this maximises the chance of gender appropriate behaviour being reinforced.
62
media and gender stereotypes research
Bandura found that the media provide clear gender stereotypes e.g
- men are independent, ambitious and advice givers
- women are dependent, unambitious and advice seekers
Furhham et al found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
63
research into the correlation between media exposure and gender stereotypical views
Frueh et al found that children who had more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes.
the research also suggested that people gain information through the media about the likely success or otherwise of adopting gender typical behaviours i.e vicarious reinforcement.
64
evaluation of the influence of culture and media on gender development
- Mead's findings have been challenged. follow up study claimed that mead misled participants and heavily influenced by preconceptions. similarly lack of objectivity. raises question over quality of research.
- Imposed etic may effect the validity. cross cultural research typically undertaken by western researches using theories and methods developed by the west. suggested that they impose understanding. make methods and findings meaningless. this is the use of methods developed in one culture to assess another. inclusion of one member of the local population in the research team.
- nature- nurture debate not resolve. cross cultural can show what is biological and what is due to the impact of cultural practices on gender role behaviour impossible to separate the 2 from birth children start learning impossible toe determine where nature stops and nurture begins.
- correlation research. media output might be reflecting social norms or it could be the cause of social norms. children without regular media exposure rarely available for the comparison necessary to establish direction
- counter stereotypes also exist in media. challenge notions of masculinity / f. gender stereotyping reduced if children were shown ad with women in non typical roles. preadolescence boy's stereotypes become stronger. therefore prediction that counter stereotypes stop gender stereotyping flawed.
65
what is GID
gender identity disorder. a mismatch between a person's biological sex and their gender identity
some individuals identify themselves as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery, becoming transgender.
DSM-5 specifically excludes atypical gender conditions with a biological basis. however it is still possible that GID may have a biological basis.
66
brain sex theory in GID
brain sex theory suggests that GID is caused by brain areas that are incompatible with a person's biological sex.
the focus of research is dimorphic areas of the brain (i.e areas that take a different form in males and females)
Zhou et al studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminals central division (BSTc) this is 40% larger in males than in females
post mortem studies of 6 male to female transgender individuals had a BSTc of the typical female size
Krujver et al also found that these individuals had an average BSTc neuron number in the female range.
67
genetic basis for GID. research
Coolidge et al found a GID prevalence of 2.3% in a sample of twins and suggested that 62% of these cases could be accounted for by genetic variance.
Heylens et al found that 9 (39%) of their sample of MZ twins were concordant for GID; but none of the DZs were.
68
psychoanalytical theory of GID
Ovesey and person suggested GID is caused by a child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established.
the boy fantasises about a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve his anxiety and remove his fear of separation.
as a result the boy becomes the mother and thus adopts the female gender identity
Stoller found that GID males did describe overly close mother son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long term.
69
cognitive schema theory of GID
| 2 pathways
Liben and Bigler extended gender schema theory
- first pathway: gender schema are learned and these direct gender appropriate attitudes and behaviour as part of normal development
- second personal pathway: personal interest may become more dominant of this in turn influences a child's gender schema. e.g a boy who plays with dolls may come to believe that playing with dolls if for boys and girls. this leads to androgynous behaviour and in a small minority may lead to GID
so counter stereotypical activities create androgynous schema which leads to GID.
70
evaluation of brain sex theory as an explanation of GID
- Hulshoff Pol et al found that transgender hormone therapy affected the size of the BSTc. Chung prenatal hormone influences are not triggered until adulthood. doubt on dimorphic brain differences
71
evaluation of biological explanation of GID
- twin study evidence weak. show low concordance rates it is also difficult to separate nature and nurture as they may share similar environments. GID is rare so sample sizes are extremely small, limiting generalisations.
- oversimplify GID. bio criticised for reducing complex conditions to a genetic neuro-anatomical and hormonal level overlooking social or psychological factors. full explanation need to include an interaction between nature and nurture. unlikely to provide a complete explanation.
72
evaluation of the psychoanalytical explanation of GID
- lack support. suggests that gender disturbance in boys is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than fear of separation from the mother. the assumption that GID is caused by separation anxiety is difficult to test. overall lack of research support for the psychoanalytical explanation
73
evaluation of the cognitive explanation of GID
- theory describes GID rather than explaining how someone may become interested in activities not consistent with their own sex. theory also does not explain how such activities bring about the development of non sex typed schema. so other theories may be more useful became they are explanatory
Psychology A level
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