1
Q
Evolution definition?
A
Gradual change of a species over time. (Population level trait shift)
2
Q
Natural Selection Definition?
A
Mechanism of evolution. Acts on individuals, certain traits (more common in populations).
3
Q
What does Natural selection only work on?
A
Heritable genetic traits (passed to offspring)
4
Q
What are Darwins Four Postulates?
A
Overproduction, variation, adaptation, selection.
5
Q
Overproduction?
A
more offspring than can survive= struggle for existence.
6
Q
Variation?
A
Individuals differ in traits within a species.
7
Q
Adaptation?
A
Some variations provide survivial advantage.
8
Q
Selection?
A
Individuals with advantageous traits reproduce more=traits become common.
9
Q
Natural selection example?
A
Darwins Finches
10
Q
Evidence of Darwins Finches, Observation?
A
Galapagos finches have beaks adapted to food sources.
11
Q
What finches survived in drought?
A
Birds with deeper, stronger beaks survived.
12
Q
What do you call the process of year to year changes in beak depth?
A
evolutionary change via natural selection.
13
Q
Steps (process) to natural selection?
A
VOAS- Variation, overproduction, adaptation, selection.
14
Q
Natural Selection types? (3)
A
Stabilizing, Directional, Disruptive
15
Q
Two other types of selection?
A
Sexual and Artificial
16
Q
What is stabilizing?
A
Favors immediate phenotypes not the extremes. (In the middle of bell curve)
17
Q
What is directional?
A
Favors one extreme phenotype over the average or other extreme. (One side of bell curve)
18
Q
What is disruptive?
A
Favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range. (Both sides of bell curve)
19
Q
Example of stabilizing?
A
Human birth weight. Average size babies are more likely to survive vs small or large ones.
20
Q
Example of directional?
A
Peppered moths. Darker moths more common as industrial pollution darkened trees.
21
Q
Example of disruptive?
A
Rabbit fur color. Both black and white rabbits hide well in patchy environments while gray stands out.
22
Q
what is sexual selection?
A
form of N.S. where selection pressure is on maximizing mating success. leads to distinct differences between female and male.
23
Q
what is artificial selection?
A
change initiated by humans through intentional modification by breeding for desired traits.
24
Q
sexual selection example?
A
peacocks, males with showier feathers are more likely to attract a mate.
25
artificial selection example?
dog breeding, all domestic dog breeds originated from gray wolf ancestors through human selection for specific traits.
26
Key factors influencing evolution speed? (4)
Generation time, population size, genetic variation, environment pressure.
27
what is generation time?
species with shorter generation times evolve faster. Example: Humans
28
what is population size?
smaller populations can see changes fixed faster due to genetic drift.
29
what is genetic variation?
more variation provides more "raw materials" for selection to act upon.
30
what is environmental pressure?
strong, consistent selection pressure drives adaption more rapidly.
31
what is taxonomy?
branch of bio concerned with naming organisms, arranging them in hierarchical groups from inclusive to exclusive.
32
Hierarchical classification system?
DKPCOFGS - Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. (Don't kangaroos prefer chaos over fun games surprisingly)
33
How are organisms organized?
In a nested hierarchy of groups within groups according to evolutionary relationships.
34
what is domain?
Eukaryotic, cells have a nucleus.
35
what is kingdom?
three kingdoms, Animalia, multicellular do not produce their own food.
36
what is phylum?
chordata, possess a notochord. (backbone in vertebrates)
37
what is class?
Mamalia, have hair/fur, are warm blooded, produce milk.
38
what is order?
Carnivora, descended from common meat-eating ancestors.
39
what is family?
Canidae, Dog-like carnivores with long muzzles and upright ears.
40
what is genus?
Canis, very closely related to species (wolves, dogs).
41
what is species?
Canis Lupus, organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
42
What are the three domains of life?
Domain Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
43
What is domain bacteria?
Prokaryotic, no nucleus, contain peptidoglycan, common enviornment, example: E. coli and salmonella.
44
what is domain archaea?
Prokaryotic, no nucleus, do not contain peptidoglycan, extreme environment (hot springs), Example: Halophiles
45
what is domain eukarya?
Eukaryotic, has a nucleus, varies in cell walls, diverse environment, examples: animals, plants, fungi, protists.
46
what is systematics?
the science of describing the relationships between organisms and the processes that underlie them. provides tools for creating evolutionary trees.
47
What is cladistics?
the reconstruction of evolutionary histories using shared traits to represent evolutionary changes.
48
what is cladogram?
a diagram that depicts a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships.
49
what is a clade?
one common ancestor and ALL dependents. it means branch.
50
what is one cut rule?
helps identify a clade, if you can cut one branch and everything falls off in one piece, that is a clade.
51
what is a node?
each node (branching point) represents a common ancestor.
52
what are branches?
represent new characters (traits) present within a new species.
53
what are the cladogram terms? (3)
Synapomorphy, autapomorphy, outgroup.
54
what is synapomorphy?
a derived character (trait) shared by members of a clade. The derived characters between branch points on a cladogram are shared by all organisms above that point.
55
what is autapomorphy?
a unique, derived trait found only in a single species or lineage.
56
what is an outgroup?
a species or group of species that is closely related to the group of interest but branched off earlier. Ex: the lamprey
57
what are prokaryotes?
oldest, structurally simplest, most abundant forms of life. single celled, lack a membrane bound nucleus and organelles, DNA floats free in cytoplasm.
58
what are the prokaryotes roles in env.? (5)
Decomposers, producers, nitrogen fixers, human health, human uses.
59
what are decomposers? (prokaryotes)
they break down dead organisms, recycling raw materials.
60
what are producers? (prokaryotes)
photosynthetic prokaryotes, like prochlorococcus cyanobacteria, contribute significantly to the planets oxygen production.
61
what are nitrogen fixers? (prokaryotes)
they convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into useful forms that other organisms need to grow.
62
what are human health? (prokaryotes)
bacteria living in and on humans form the microbiome which aids digestion and protects against pathogens.
63
what are human uses? (prokaryotes)
they are used in food production, ex: yogurt. waste management, and the synthesis of drugs.
64
what are the modes of nutrition for domain bacteria and archaea?
autotroph or heterotroph
65
what is the gram stain test?
it differentiates bacteria based on their cell wall composition. Either gram-positive or gram-negative.
66
what is gram-positive?
thick peptidoglycan layer that absorbs the purple dye.
67
what is gram-negative?
less peptidoglycan, second membrane, do not retain the purple dye but look pink with counterstain.
68
What are archaea sometimes called?
Extremophiles
69
what do archaea lack?
peptidoglycan in their cell walls
70
what are methanogens?
live in environments with little or no oxygen and produce methane gas.
71
what are halophiles?
live in extremely salty environments like the great salt lake.
72
what are thermophiles?
live in hot pools where temperatures approach the boiling point of water.
73
what is the endosymbiotic theory?
an explanation for the origin of complex eukaryotic cells from simpler prokaryotic ancestors.
74
What is core idea of endosymbiotic theory?
a larger host cell engulfed free living bacteria in a mutually beneficial partnership eventually forming organelles.
75
what is mitochondria origin?
an ancestral eukaryotic cell is thought to have engulfed an aerobic bacterium which evolved into the mitochondrion for energy production.
76
what is chloroplast origin?
in a lineage of cells that already had mitochondria, a photosynthetic bacterium was engulfed and evolved into the chloroplast for photosynthesis.
77
how was the nucleus and ER thought to have arisen?
from infolding of the prokaryotic cell membrane.
78
what are protists?
eukaryotes that are not members of the plant, animal, or fungi kingdoms.
79
what is protists cell structure?
eukaryotic with a nucleus and other membrane bound organelles.
80
protist size and structure?
microscopic and unicellular but some form large colonies or multicellular forms. Example kelp.
81
protist habitat?
primarily aquatic but also in damp soil, forests, or even as parasites.
82
protists nutrition?
extremely varied, autotrophic make their own food (photosynthesis), heterotrophic ingest or absorb food, decomposers absorb nutrients from dead organic matter.
83
protist movement?
many can move using flagella whip like tails, cilia short hair like structures, pseudopods false feet like amoebas.
84
protist reproduction?
some reproduce asexually by mitosis, while others have life cycles that combine asexual and sexual forms of reproduction.
85
Alternation of generations?
A sexual life cycle where protists switch between a diploid and haploid phase.
86
Examples of protists?
brown algae, red algae, green algae, slime molds, diatoms, dinoflagellates.
87
Plants nutrition?
mostly autotrophic, producing their own food via photosynthesis.
88
how do plants get their pigment?
chlorophyll contains the green pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy.
89
plants motility?
non motile, generally fixed in one place.
90
what do plants store?
store food as starch.
91
Plants reproduce?
various methods, including sexual and asexual. Many exhibits alternation of generations.
92
Plants diversity?
Classified by features like vascular tissues and reproductive structures.
93
If plants aren't autotrophic than what are they?
Mixotrophs
94
Land plants major groups? (4)
Non vascular, vascular, gymnosperms, angiosperms.
95
Non vascular plants characteristics?
Lack vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), limits size (small and low), they absorb water low to ground.
96
Bryophytes characteristics?
non vascular, seedless, gametophyte dominant, need water for reproduction, rhizoids for anchorage.
97
seedless vascular plants characteristics?
Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), sporophyte dominant, need water for fertilization, reproduce by spores.
98
gymnosperms characteristics?
vascular tissue, naked seeds, sporophyte dominant.
99
angiosperms characteristics?
vascular tissue, seeds enclosed in fruits, flowers for reproduction, sporophyte dominant.
100
what are rhizoids used for?
hair like structures for anchorage and minimal nutrient uptake. In bryophytes.
101
Bryophytes reproduction?
specialized reproductive organs (archegonia for eggs, antheridia for sperm) and require a film of water for sexual reproduction as sperm must swim to the egg.
102
what are haploid spores produced by?
meiosis in the capsule (sporangium)
103
seedless vascular plants life cycle?
diploid sporophyte
104
what are the seed plants?
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
105
gymnosperms produce seeds in what shape?
cones
106
what are angiosperms divided into?
monocots and dicots.
107
what are the two main phases of life cycle of plants?
gametophyte and sporophyte.
108
gametophyte?
the haploid (N) phase. sperm and egg cells fuse to produce a diploid zygote during fertilization.
109
sporophyte?
diploid (2N) phase.
110
what develops from microspores in male cones via meiosis?
male gametophytes (pollen grains)
111
what develops from a surviving megaspore via mitosis?
female gametophytes
112
what are vascular plants known as?
Tracheophytes because they contain a specialized type of water conducting cell called tracheids.
113
what are tracheids?
hollow, tubelike cells with thick cell walls strengthened by lignin.
114
what are the two main transport tissues in vascular plants?
xylem and phloem
115
what does xylem do?
carries water upward from the roots to every part of the plant. Tracheids are found in xylem.
116
what does phloem do?
transports solutions of nutrients and carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.
117
lycophytes?
have simple, single veined leaves
117
euphyllophytes?
have leaves with many often branching veins.
118
what are gymnosperms and angiosperms categorized as?
spermatophytes which are vascular plants that produce seeds.
119
what is a seed?
a sophisticated reproductive structure: a mature fertilized ovule.
120
seed part: embryo?
a miniature undeveloped plant
121
seed part: food supply?
endosperm or cotyledons that nourish the embryo during initial growth.
122
seed part: seed coat?
a protective outer layer that shields internal components from damage and dehydration.
123
what are the advantages of seeds?
maintaining dormancy under unfavorable conditions, protecting the vulnerable young plant, providing food for the embryo, facilitating dispersal.
124
seeds characteristics gymnosperms?
"naked" seeds not enclosed in a protective coating
125
seed characteristics angiosperm?
seeds enclosed in a protective coating.
126
gymnosperm reproduction?
produce male and female cones, mainly wind pollinated
127
angiosperm reproduction?
produce flowers and fruits, pollinated by the wind, water, and animals
128
examples of gymnosperms?
ginkgoes, pine trees, cedar trees.
129
examples of angiosperms?
grasses, wildflowers, hardwood trees.
130
what are the largest group of gymnosperms?
conifers, they are a source of products like timber and paper.
131
what two things fuse to produce a diploid zygote during fertilization?
sperm and egg cells
132
what are angiosperms?
massive diverse group of flowering plants that protect their developing seeds inside an ovary.
133
who are fungi closely related to?
animals
133
what do angiosperms produce?
flowers and bear their seeds in fruits.
134
what are angiosperms structure?
vascular plants with specialized tissues for efficient nutrient transport. most have true roots, stems, and leaves.
135
what is double fertilization?
unique process resulting in a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm, a nutritive tissue for the seed.
136
what does the mature ovary develop into?
a fruit which aids in seed dispersal
137
what is the ovary wall?
the pericarp with layers including exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
138
what are the plants, trees, grasses, and flowers categorized as?
monocots and eudicots.
139
how do fungi obtain nutrients?
by absorption, they are heterotrophs.
140
who are the essential decomposers in ecosystems?
fungi
141
what are fungal cells made of?
chitin, a strong flexible polysaccharide also found in insect exoskeletons.
142
what are plant cell walls made of?
cellulose
143
what are the fungi structures called that are thread-like filaments?
hyphae.
144
what does a mass of hyphae form?
the vegetative body of the fungus called the mycelium.
145
how do fungi reproduce?
through spores. which can be asexually or sexually.
146
what are haploid and dispersed by wind, water, or animals?
spores
147
what are mushrooms used for?
above ground fruiting bodies responsible for producing and dispersing spores.
148
what is fungi mycorrhizae?
they associate with plant roots to enhance water and mineral uptake in exchange for carbohydrates.
149
what are fungi? (what structure)
eukaryotes and heterotrophs that form their own distinct kingdom separate from plants and animals.
150
how do fungi get nutrients?
secreting enzymes into environment and absorbing the digested molecules.
151
what is mycelium?
hyphae which weave together to form a network called mycelium. it is the hidden body of the fungus.
152
what are fungi classification? (CZGABD)
CraZyGABbyD. Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Deuteromycota.
153
What is chytridiomycota?
example: chytrids. small unicellular aquatic fungi with the only flagellated spores.
154
what are zygomycota?
common molds. land dwelling saprophytes
155
what are glomeromycota?
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. form obligate mycorrhizal relationships with plant roots.
156
what are ascomycota?
sac fungi. the largest division. Characterized by producing sexual spores inside a sac like structure called ascus. ex. yeast
157
what is basidiomycota?
club fungi. the name comes from the club shaped basidium that forms at the tip of reproductive hyphae. ex. mushrooms
158
what are deuteromycota?
imperfect fungi. fungi with no known sexual reproduction stage cause human disease like ringworm and athletes foot.
159
what does fungi sexual reproduction form?
fusion of + and - nuclei forms a diploid zygote nucleus.
160
what does fungi asexual reproduction look like?
clones parental cells spores are adapted to travel through air and water.
161
what is fungi outcome asexual and sexual?
A: rapid colonization and S: genetic diversity and adaptability.
162
what are fungi methods for asexual and sexual reproduction?
A: vegetative propagation, budding, spore production. S:involves two different mating types + and -
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