1
Q
what do sensory receptors do?
A
detect changes in the environment
2
Q
what are changes in the environment called?
A
stimuli
3
Q
what are photoreceptors?
A
stimulated by light wavelengths
4
Q
what are mechanoreceptors?
A
stimulated by touch, movement, pressure
5
Q
what are chemoreceptors?
A
stimulated by certain chemicals
6
Q
what are thermoreceptors?
A
stimulated by heat or cold
7
Q
what are pain receptors?
A
stimulated by tissue damage
8
Q
what is gustation?
A
taste
9
Q
what organ is involved in gustation?
A
tongue
10
Q
where are chemoreceptors located?
A
taste buds with areas called papillae
11
Q
what are the types of papillae?
A
fungiform, foliate, circumvallate
12
Q
what are fungiform?
A
mushroom shaped, front of tongue
13
Q
what are foliate?
A
flat/grooved shaped, sides of tongue
14
Q
what are circumvallate?
A
circular, back of tongue
15
Q
what are primary tastes?
A
sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami
16
Q
what is pathway for taste?
A
stimulus-taste buds-facial/glossopharyngeal nerve-medulla-gustatory cortex
17
Q
what is olfaction?
A
smell
18
Q
what organ is olfaction?
A
nose
19
Q
what receptors are used in olfaction?
A
olfactory receptors (chemoreceptors) in olfactory bulb at top of nasal cavity
20
Q
what is combinational diversity?
A
humans detect 4k odors with <1,000 receptors. each odorant molecule binds to a unique pattern of cells
21
Q
what is olfaction pathway?
A
odorant-olfactory bulb cilia-olfactory nerve-olfactory cortex
22
Q
what is the anatomy of the ear?
A
outer ear, middle ear, inner ear
23
Q
what is outer ear?
A
pinna (gathers waves) and auditory canal (transmits waves)
24
Q
what is middle ear?
A
eardrum, three ossicles, and Eustachian tube
25
what is eardrum membrane called?
tympanic membrane
26
what are three ossicles?
malleus, incus, stapes
27
what does Eustachian tube do?
equalizes pressure
28
what is inner ear?
cochlea (hearing) and semicircular canals (balance)
29
what do sound waves do to eardrum?
hit the eardrum and causes vibrations
30
what do ossicles do?
amplify vibrations and transfer them to oval window
31
what happens in oval window?
vibrations become pressure waves in cochleas fluid
32
what is perilymph?
cochleas fluid
33
what happens in organ of corti?
pressure waves move hair cells
34
what happens in auditory nerve to auditory cortex?
mechanical motion is converted to nerve impulses
35
what do semicircular canals do?
detect angular/rotational motion (xyz axes). fluid moves a gelatinous cupula to stimulate hair cells
36
what is endolymph?
fluid in semicircular canals
37
what is utricle and saccule?
detect linear acceleration (straight lines) utricle is horizontal and saccule is vertical
38
what is interpretation?
signals travel via vestibular nerve to vestibular cortex
39
what is pinna (auricle)?
in outer ear, external cartilaginous part that gathers sound waves
40
what is auditory canal?
in outer ear, hollow tube which sound waves travel
41
what is tympanic membrane (eardrum)?
in outer ear, thin membrane at end of canal that vibrates when hit by sound waves.
42
what is ossicles (middle ear bones)?
three tiny bones that amplify vibrations 18x. malleus, incus, stapes
43
what is auditory (Eustachian) tube?
in middle ear, slender tube that connects middle ear to pharynx/nasal cavity to equalize air pressure
44
what is cochlea?
in inner ear, snail shaped structure responsible for hearing
45
what is semicircular canals?
three hollow looped structures responsible for balance and detecting motion
46
what are the process of hearing? (7)
collection, vibration, amplification, fluid displacement, signal conversion, hair cell activation, transmission
47
what is collection?
pinna collects sound waves and directs them to auditory canal.
48
what is vibration?
sound waves hit tympanic membrane causing vibration
49
what is amplification?
vibrations are passed to the ossicles which amplify mechanical energy
50
what is fluid displacement?
stapes pushes against oval window of cochlea creating pressure waves in internal fluid
51
what is signal conversion?
these fluid waves move the basilar membrane within organ of corti
52
what is hair cell activation?
the movement causes stereocilia on hair cells to bend against the tectorial membrane
53
what is transmission?
this bending triggers a nerve impulse sent via auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.
54
what two types of motion does mechanoreceptors detect?
linear acceleration and rotational motion
55
what is linear acceleration?
straight line motion, manage by vestibule
56
what are two sacs in vestibule?
utricle and saccule
57
what is rotational motion?
also called angular motion, managed by three semicircular canals
58
what are three semicircular canals?
x axis, y axis, z axis
59
what is x axis?
lateral canal, sideways rotation shaking head no
60
what is y axis?
anterior canal, front to back rotation, nodding yes
61
what is z axis?
posterior canal, side to side tilting (rolling head)
62
what are steps to detecting rotational motion? (6)
head movement, endolymph lag, cupula bending, hair cell stimulation, nerve impulse, brain processing
63
what is head movement?
the head or body moves in a specific direction?
64
what is endolymph lag?
the fluid inside canals moves in opposite direction of head movement
65
what is cupula bending?
the moving fluid pushes against the cupula located in ampulla
66
what is hair cell stimulation?
the bending cupula causes the stereocila of the hair cells to bend
67
what is nerve impulse?
the stimulated hair cells trigger an electrical signal
68
what is brain processing?
the signal is carried via the vestibular nerve to the brain to coordinate balance and eye movement
69
what is the sensory systems organ of balance or equilibrium?
inner ear
70
what are three inner ear structures?
semicircular canals, utricle, saccule
71
where are nerve impulses carried along?
vestibular nerve
72
what interprets nerve impulses?
vestibular cortex
73
what is dynamic equilibrium?
body maintains balance while in motion, use of sensory hair cells, three semicircular canals
74
what is static equilibrium?
body maintains balance holding posture, by utricle and saccule, involves macula
75
what is cupula?
gelatinous cone shape, found in chamber at base of each canal to bend
76
what is maculae?
composed of sensory hair cells embedded in gel matrix with crystals of calcium carbonate
77
what are otoliths?
crystals of calcium carbonate
78
what forms a image in eye?
retina
79
where are things processed for sight?
visual cortex
80
where do light rays pass through?
cornea
81
where does cornea focus light rays through?
pupil and lens
82
what happens in dim lights to pupil?
dilates, widen, lets in more light
83
what happens in bright light to pupil?
constricts, narrows, less light in
84
what are ciliary muscles?
can constrict or relax to make lens thicker or thinner
85
what does ciliary muscles do for distant objects?
thinner
86
what does ciliary muscles do for nearby objects?
thicker
87
what do light rays hit in the retina?
a layer of sensory receptor cells
88
what do cone cells do?
detect color of light, red, green, blue
89
what do rod cells do?
detect brightness of light and only see black and white
90
where do rod and cones send impulses?
optic nerve and visual cortex
91
what is optic chiasm?
optic nerves crossover so images are flipped horizontally
92
what does visual cortex do after optic chiasm?
reverses the image again so we see correctly
93
what are 6 main functions in muscular system?
movement, stability, posture, protection, heat production, circulation
94
what are 4 characteristics of muscle tissue?
excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity
95
what is excitability?
ability to respond to a stimulus
96
what is contractility?
ability to shorten and thicken with force
97
what is extensibility?
ability to stretch beyond original length
98
what is elasticity?
ability to return to original length
99
what are 3 types of muscle tissue?
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
100
what is skeletal muscle tissue?
attached to bones, voluntary, cylindrical striated, fast
101
what is smooth muscle tissue?
walls of hollow organs, involuntary, spindle shaped no striations, slow
102
what is origin?
attachment to a relatively fixed or stable bone
103
what are cardiac muscle tissue?
muscular walls of the heart, involuntary, branching, striated, medium
104
what is insertion?
attachment to the more mobile bone that moves during contraction
105
what are muscle pairings?
muscles can only pull (not push) they work in antagonistic pairs
106
what is agonist?
prime mover, provides the main force for a movement
107
what is antagonist?
opposes the agonist and relaxes during movement
108
what is synergist?
stabilizes the joint at the insertion point to help control motion
109
what is fixator?
stabilizes the origin point to help the agonist move more efficiently
110
what is concentric?
muscle shortens, force is greater than resistance, causes flexion
110
what are the three muscle contractions?
concentric, eccentric, isometric
111
what is eccentric?
muscle lengthens, force is less than resistance, causes extension
112
what is isometric?
muscle length does not change, force equals resistance, no motion occurs
113
what is skeletal muscle?
has hundreds of muscle fibers wrapped in a tough layer of connective tissue (epimysium)
114
what is epimysium?
the tough layer of connective tissue in skeletal muscle
115
what is fascicle?
a bundle of muscle fibers wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called perimysium
116
what is perimysium?
a connective tissue part of fascicle
117
what is muscle fiber (cell)?
single, long, multinucleated, striated cell wrapped in endomysium. plasma membrane called sarcolemma
118
what is endomysium?
wraps striated cell in muscle fiber cell
119
what is myofibril?
bundles of smaller units within a fiber that have a striped appearance
120
what is sarcomere?
the basic repeating contractile unit of a muscle. thick and thin filaments
121
what do thick filaments (myosin) create?
A bands (dark bands)
122
what does thin filaments (actin) create?
I bands (light bands) connected by Z discs
123
what is the chemical process?
Stimulation, action potential, calcium release, binding, cross bridge cycle
124
what is stimulation?
acetylcholine (ACh) is released from a motor neuron at the neuromuscular junction.
125
what is action potential?
electrical signals travel along the sarcolemma and through transverse tubules
126
what is calcium release?
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) releases inside the muscle fiber
127
what is binding?
attaches to troponin causing a change in tropomyosin that allows myosin to access actin.
128
what is cross bridge cycle?
myosin heads bind to actin using energy from tap. power stroke, release.
129
what is power stroke?
released in cross bridge cycle, producing a stroke that pulls the thin filament toward the center
130
what is release?
new atp binds to the myosin head, causing it to release from the actin
131
what are visual changes during contraction?
A, I, and H bands and filaments
132
what does A bands do?
do not shorten, simply move closer together
133
what do I bands do?
do shorten
134
what do H bands do?
shortens or disappears
135
what do filaments do?
individual filaments (actin and myosin) do not change their length
136
what is muscle stimulation and contraction?
neuromuscular junction, action potential travel, calcium release.
137
what is neuromuscular junction?
stim begins when ACh is released from a motor neuron. binds to receptor on muscle cell allowing sodium to enter and creates action potential
138
what is action potential travel?
electrical impulse travels along the sarcolemma and deep into the cell through transverse tubules
139
what is calcium release?
this impulse triggers the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release stored calcium ions into the muscle fiber
140
what is detachment?
ATP binds to myosin heads causing them to detach so they reset and pull again
141
what is relaxation?
occurs when nerve impulses stop. calcium is pumped back into SR, cross bridge break, muscle lengthens
142
what is fatigue?
decline in ability to contract caused by exhaustion of ATP supplies
143
what are hormone types?
steroid hormones and non steroid hormones
144
what is steroid hormones?
fat soluble molecules that pass through cell membranes to bind with internal receptors. enter nucleus to turn genes on or off
145
what is non steroid hormones?
not fat soluble. bind to membrane bound receptors on outside of cell triggering secondary messenger to alter cell activity
146
what are feedback loops?
negative or positive. N: balances (push pull) returns to homeostasis. P:amplifies stimulus to reach end
147
what are the lobes of pituitary gland?
anterior and posterior
148
what is anterior lobe?
(Adenohypophysis) releases hormones like HGH (Growth), TSH (thyroid stim) and FSH/LH (reproduction)
149
what is posterior lobe?
(Neurohypophysis) releases ADH (water reabsorption) and oxytocin.
150
what are hormones delivered to?
specific target cells
151
what is steroid hormones made of?
lipid based, synthesized from cholesterol
152
what are non steroid hormones made of?
proteins, peptides, or amines
153
what solubility are steroid hormones and non steroid hormones?
S: fat soluble and N: water soluble
154
what does steroid hormone bind to?
They are primary messenger, binds to receptor inside the cell to act on DNA
155
what does non steroid hormone bind to?
They are secondary messenger, binds to surface receptors triggering chemical cascade inside.
156
what are examples of steroid hormones?
estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, progesterone
157
what are examples of non steroid hormones?
insulin, adrenalin, melatonin, ADH, Oxytocin
158
what is the hypothalamus the link for?
the nervous system and endocrine system
159
what does the hypothalamus secrete?
neurohormones
160
what two lobes make up the pituitary gland?
anterior lobe and posterior lobe
161
what hormones do anterior lobe release?
HGH, TSH, PRL, ACTH
162
what hormones do posterior lobe release?
ADH, oxytocin
163
what is thyroid gland?
a butterfly shaped gland in neck
164
what is thyroxine?
speed up metabolic rate
165
what is calcitonin?
decreases blood calcium levels by stim bones to store it
166
what are parathyroid glands?
four small lumps behind the thyroid
167
what is parathyroid hormone?
PTH, antagonist to calcitonin. It increases blood calcium by stim bone release and intestinal absorption of calcium from food
168
what are common endocrine disorders caused by?
hyper secretion (too much) or hypo secretion (too little) caused by tumors, injury, genetics
169
what are the three common endocrine disorders?
growth hormone (HGH), thyroid graves disease, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
170
what is growth hormone (HGH)?
hyper secretion causes gigantism, hypo secretion causes pituitary dwarfism
171
what is thyroid graves disease?
Graves disease (hyperthyroidism) leads to weight loss and rapid heart rate. Hypothyroidism leads to weight gain, fatigue, cold sensitivity
172
what is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
low levels cause diabetes insipidus (excessive thirst, and urination)
173
what is the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system?
a network of blood vessels connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.
174
what is the adenohypophysis? (anterior pituitary)
produces and releases several key hormones when stimulated by hypothalamus
175
what does HGH do? (human growth hormone)
increases bone and body growth
176
what does TSH do? (thyroid stimulating hormone)
stimulates thyroxine release from the thyroid
177
what is ACTH? (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
stimulates cortisol release from the adrenals
178
what is PRL (prolactin)?
stimulates milk production after childbirth
179
what is FSH and LH (follicle stimulating and lutenizing hormone)?
regulate egg and sperm production and sex hormone release
180
what is endorphins?
inhibit pain sensations
181
what does posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) do?
stores and releases hormones produced in the hypothalamus, such as ADH and oxytocin
182
what are key endocrine disorders?
HGH and ADH imbalances
183
what happens in HGH imbalances?
hyper secretion and hypo secretion
184
what does hyper secretion (SIADH) do? (ADH)
causes excessive water retention, nausea, and confusion
185
what does hyposecretion do (diabetes insipidus)? (ADH)
causes extreme thirst and heavy urination
186
what does hyper secretion do in HGH?
results in gigantism or acromegaly
187
what does hypo secretion do in HGH?
results in pituitary dwarfism
188
what are major endocrine glands?
pineal, pancreas, adrenal, thymus
189
what is pineal gland?
located in midbrain, produces melatonin to regulate sleep wake cycles
190
what does pancreas do?
regulates blood sugar using Islets of Langerhans
191
what are Islets of Langerhans in pancreas?
insulin (alpha) and glucagon (beta)
192
what does insulin do?
decreases blood glucose levels
193
what does glucagon do?
increases blood glucose levels
194
where are adrenal glands located?
on top of kidneys
195
what does adrenal glands contain?
medulla and cortex
196
what is medulla?
secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine for flight or fight
197
what is cortex?
secretes aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens
198
what does aldosterone do?
blood pressure
199
what does cortisol do?
metabolism
200
what does thymus do?
located behind sternum, secretes thymosins to develop T-lymphocytes for immune system
201
what are 5 main functions of respiratory tract?
gas exchange (O2/CO2), sound production, olfaction (smell), blood pH regulation, protection against pathogens
202
what are 4 steps of respiration?
ventilation (breathing), lung gas exchange, transportation (via blood), cellular gas exchange.
203
what is the anatomy of the upper respiratory tract?
nose and pharynx (throat)
204
what does nose do?
filters air via vibrissae (hairs) and warms/humidifies it via nasal conchae.
205
what does pharynx/throat do?
shared passage for food and air
206
what is pharynx/throat divided into?
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
207
what is lower respiratory tract anatomy?
larynx (voice box) and vocal cords
208
what does larynx do?
contains the thyroid cartilage (Adams apple) and the epiglottis
209
what does epiglottis do?
acts as a lid to prevent food from entering the airway
210
what does vocal cords do?
folds of tissue that vibrate to produce sound.
211
what do true vocal cords do?
produce sound
212
what do false vocal cords do?
help close the glottis during swallowing
213
what are the three main steps of breathing?
breathing, gas exchange, transportation.
214
what does breathing involve? (2)
inhalation and exhalation
215
air flows from area of?
high to low pressure
216
what are intercostal muscles?
skeletal muscles found between the ribs
217
what is the diaphragm?
dome shaped muscle positioned below ribcage
218
what do central chemoreceptors do?
monitor levels of CO2 by measuring blood pH
219
what do peripheral chemoreceptors do?
monitor levels of CO2 and O2 in the blood
220
what other receptors are involved in breathing regulation?
lung stretch and airway irritant receptors
221
what is spirometry?
process of measuring the volume of air inhaled and exhaled by the lungs during a PFT
222
what is PFT?
pulmonary function test which a person breathes into a tube attached to a machine
223
what are respiratory volumes?
several lung volume measurements
224
what are respiratory capacities?
another volume calculated by combining 2 or more respiratory volumes together
225
what is a spirogram?
a graphical record of lung volumes and capacities measured with a spirometer
226
what do respiratory volumes refer to?
the volume of gas in the lungs during breathing cycle
227
what is tidal volume?
volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath (500mL)
228
what is inspiratory reserve volume?
volume of air inhaled with a forceful inhalation (3000-3300mL)
229
what is expiratory reserve volume?
volume of air exhaled with a forceful exhalation (1000-1200mL)
230
what is residual volume?
volume of air left in lungs at all times (1200mL)
231
what is inspiratory capacity?
volume of air inhaled after normal exhalation (3000mL)
232
what is functional residual capacity?
volume of air remaining after normal exhalation (2000mL)
233
what is vital capacity?
volume of air exhaled after maximal inhalation (4800mL)
234
what is total lung capacity?
volume of air held in lungs after maximal inhalation (6000mL)
235
what is gas exchange?
process where O2 in inhaled air is exchanged for CO2 in the blood
236
what are alveoli?
microscopic air spaces in the lungs
237
how many alveoli do lungs contain?
300 million
238
what is diffusion?
gas moves in gas exchange from high to low
239
what is partial pressure?
the pressure of any one gas in a mixture within a container
240
what is daltons law of partial pressures?
total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of partial pressure of each gas
241
what does partial pressure explain?
why gases move between the air and blood within the alveoli
242
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