1
Q
what kind of microscopes use beams of electrons to create an image
A
electron microscope
2
Q
object being viewed on a microscope
A
specimen
3
Q
a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function
A
tissue
4
Q
the scale to measure a specimen
A
graticule
5
Q
1mm is (in micro meters)
A
1000 micro meters
6
Q
1 micro meter is (in nano meter)
A
100
7
Q
formula for magnification
A
image size/ actual size
8
Q
formula for image size
A
actual size times magnification
9
Q
actual size formula
A
image size / magnification
10
Q
ability for a microscope to distinguish 2 seperate things on a specimen on a short distance
A
resolution
11
Q
which magnification is bigget? light microscope or electron microscope
A
electron
12
Q
freeze fracture microscopy
A
freezing a sample then using a tool to break it into pieces to observe an internal structure that is usually unseen
13
Q
immunofluorescent staining
A
using fluorescent markers on antibodies to attach specific chemicals in a cell. Those chemicals will illuminate and show up brightly
14
Q
staining
A
technique to visualize cells clear in color eg methylene blue
15
Q
phospholipid bilayers
A
a fundamental structure in a cell membrane with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
16
Q
3 features all cells have in common
A
DNA, cell membrane and cytoplasm
17
Q
prokaryotes
A
unicellular organisms that does not have a membrane bound organelles (not compartmentalized)
18
Q
types of prokaryotes
A
bacteria and archaea
19
Q
prokaryotes cell structure
A
cell wall, plasma membrane, naked DNA, nucleoid ,cytoplasm ,70S ribosomes , flagellum
20
Q
eukaryotic cells
A
multi cellular and more complex and large
have a nucleus and a membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles
21
Q
eukaryotes cell structure
A
cell membrane, nuclues (nucleolus), mitochondria, ribosomes, smoothe endoplasmic reticulum, rough endoplasmic reticilum, lysosome, cytoplasm, vacuole, golgi apparatus
22
Q
cytoplasm
A
water-based jelly like fluid that holds all the cell organelles in places
23
Q
stem cells
A
cells with abilities to make more cells like themselves and also become other cells that do different things in a process called differentiation
24
Q
cell specialization
A
the process by which generic cells become/ develop into specialized cell types with distinct functions
25
their main role is to fertilize eggs .Their narrow and small volume helps them swim to the egg easiliy due to no resistance.
sperm
26
female reproductive cells. They have the largest volume and therefore allows them to store large quantities of food in the cytoplasm.
egg
27
red blood cells
a specialized cell that transports oxygen from lungs to a body's tissue. They have a small size so that they can passage along the narrow capilaries. Also, big SA/V so that they can unload oxygen faster.
28
white blood cells
protect body from infection. enlarge when they are activated.
29
membrane
thin layers that forms a boundry within a living cell
30
membrane transport
passage of a substance accross or through a membrane
31
passive transport
does not require energy (protein)
32
diffusion is... passive or active
passive
33
osmosis is... passive or active
passive
34
the substance dissolved
solute
35
the substance that the solute dissolved in
solvent
36
semi-permiable
type of barrier that only lets certain materials pass through
37
things that can go through in a semi-permiable membrane
water, small molecules, non-polar molecules
38
things that cannot go through is a semi-permiable membrane
large molecules, ions charged + or -
39
diffusion
movement of substances from a high concentration to a low concentration
40
osmosis
movement of water or solvent through a semipermeable membrane from a high concentration to low concentration
41
hypotonic
low solute, high solvent
cells swells and bursts
42
isotonic
equal ratio of solute and solvent
43
hypertonic
high solute, low solvent
cells shrinks and wrinkles
44
integral protein
they are embedded in the cell permanently, mainly transporting
45
peripheral protein
teporary on the surface of the membrane. various fucntions as enzymes, markers etc
46
channel protein
passive transport which is a type of protein in which allows ions to pass through. An open gate
47
pump protein
active transport that changes forms to move molecules across a cell membrane
The gates open and close
48
organelles
parts of a cell
49
advantages for compartmentalization
good degree of concentration, lysosomes can kill a cell if they were not compartmentalized, pH can be maintained
50
cells with no membrane
ribosomes, centrioles, microtubules, protaesomes, nucleoli
51
single membrane
vesicles and vacuoles, smooth/rough endoplasmic reticulum , golgi apparatus, lysosomes
52
cells with a double membrane
nuclei, mitochondria, chlorplasts, amyloplasts, chromoplasts
53
vacuoles
they are filled with fluid. They store water, nutrients, ions and waste.
54
vesicles
they are very small vacuoles used to transport materials inside the cell
55
golgi apparatus
process and package proteins. then released in the golgi vesciles
56
lysosome
they have a digestive enzyme so they break down ingested food in vesicles.
57
nucleus
double membrane. A nucleus controls and regulates protein by replicating DNA to the from mRNA
58
rough endoplasmic reticulums are rough bc
they are covered in ribosomes
59
nucleoid
membrane less region in prokaryotic cells in which consists DNA. Their main function is to control the acitivities of a cell and reproduce. They also transcribe and replicate DNA.
60
breaking cells down sugar(glucose) to produce energy in the form of ATP
aerobic cell respiration
61
transcription
makes a RNA copy of a piece of DNA
62
mitochondrion
convert glucose into ATP by aerobic cell respiration. (respiration)
63
secretion
produce and releasing a useful substance
63
nucleus
double membrane, and it is a place where the DNA is replicated and transcribed into mRNA.
their main function is to control and regulate activities in the cell and to carry genetic information
64
ribosome
where protein synthesis occurs
65
nucleolus
produce ribosomes
66
rough endoplasmic reticulum
they have ribosomes on the surface. They produce protein for outside the cells.
67
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
produce and store lipids, inclusing sterioids (type of lipids)
68
totipotent
can form any type of cell and develop into an entirely new organism
69
pluripotent
can form any cell type arising from the three germ layers
70
multipotent
can only form a number of closely related cell types
71
produce glucose
chloroplast
72
polar covalent bond
chemical bond where the electrons are shared unequally between 2 atoms due to the difference between electrongravity
72
water is made of
2 hydrogen atoms (slightly positive charge ) and one oxygen atom (slighly negative charge)
73
cytoskeleton
help construct cell walls
74
7 processes a cells goes through
metabolism, respiration, homeostatus, growth, response to stimuli, excretion, nutrition
75
metabolism
chemical reations in a living cell to provide energy for life eg: sustain itself, growth and reproduction
76
reproduction
making new organnles
77
homeostatus
how cells regulate and maintain themselves
78
response to stimuli
ability to detect and react to changes
79
excretion
removing toxic substances and waste
80
conditions required to osmosis to occur
having different concentration of solute
having a semipermeable memebrane
81
solvation
combination of a solvent with the molecules or ions of a solute
82
oxygen attracts a pair of electrons to be attracted
yes
83
cohesion
particles of the same substances are attracted to eachother
84
adhesion
particles of one substance are attracted to another
85
surface tension
surface of water shrinks and pulled inwards due to cohesion (allows animals to move on water)
86
high specifc heat capacity
the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius (°C).
water needs a lot of energy
87
formula for density
mass over volume
88
positive pressure
push
89
negative pressure
pull/suck
90
differentiation
a specialized cell becoming more specialized
91
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism
92
monomers
an individual/ small molecules that can join with other monomers to make a polymer
93
polymers
large molecules made by combining monomers
94
nucleotides
building blocks of nucleic acids
95
DNA
genetic information
96
RNA
carries out the instruction to the ribosome and copies DNA to make proteins.
97
components of a nucleotide
pentose sugar (deoxyribose), base, phosphate group
98
pentose sugar (deoxyribose)
sugar made of 5 carbon atoms
99
base
A-T, G-C
100
Hydrolysis
break down
101
complementary bases are linked by
hydrogen bond
102
phosphate group and nitrogeneous base is linked by what bond to pentose sugar
covalent bond
103
covalent bond
different materials bond together and share electrons
104
2 types of bases
purine and pyrimidines
105
purine
two rings (adenine, guanine)
106
pyrimidines
one ring (thymine, cytosine and urasil)
107
DNA phosphate sugar
deoxyribose
108
RNA phosphate sugar
ribose
109
DNA structure
double helix, sugar phosphate backbone
110
DNA complementary base
Adenine and Thymine
guanine and cytosine
111
RNA complementary base
Adenine and uracil
guanine and cytosine
112
complementary base pairing does what to the double helix structure
stabilise
113
replication
copying of the DNA to double its amount and prepare the cell for division
114
gene expression
process by which the genetic code in the DNA is translated into a protein
115
t or f
gene expression can be turned on and off
true
116
117
guanine
purines, 1 NH2 group, 2 carbon nitrogen rings
118
adenine
purines, no oxygen, 1 NH2 group, 2 carbon niteogen ring
119
cytosine
pyrimidine, double bond with oxygen
120
thymine
pyrimidine, double bond with oxygen
121
nitrogen's role
collect nucleotides
link the base to the sugar
122
bond used to link bases together
hydrogen bond
123
RNA structure
single, unbranched polymer of nucleotides
124
RNA (base material)
uracil instead of thymine
125
transcription
first step of protein synthesis
producing mRNA using DNA as a template
126
transcription takes place in
eukaryotic cells , prokaryotic cells
E- nucleus
P- cytoplasm
127
RNA polymerase
enzymes
128
facilitated diffusion
transport of molecules from a high conc to a low conc that does not require ATP but requires proteins to act as channels.
129
concentration gradient
high conc to low conc
130
against a conc gradient
low to high
131
semi-permiable membrane
type of membrane in which allows specific types of molecules to go through
❌big molecules and charged molecules
132
example of a membrane protein
permeuses
133
what bond is needed to form sugar phosphate backbone
covalent bond
134
role of nitrogen in dna
connects the nucleotides and links base to the sugar
135
helicase
the enzyme that forms the replication fork by separating the two strands of DNA, breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases of the two strands.
136
free nucleotides
DNA nucleotides found in the nucleus . use them to build the new strands of DNA
137
DNA polymerase
using the templates, build new strands of DNA b y placing free nucleotides in a chain
138
DNA are semi conservative
each strand of double helix acts as a template
139
high specific heat capacity
warms up and cools down slowly
more energy required to shange temp
140
low specific heat capacity
warms up and cools down quickly
less energy required to change temp
141
when a plant cell shrinks
plasmolysis
142
when a plant cell swells
turgid
143
when an anima cell shrinks
crenated
144
when an animal cell swells
lysed
145
vesicle
membrane bound sack
transports substances
digest stores
146
gated channel protein
controls the exchange of ions
by opening and closing the pore
147
processes for PCR
denaturing, annealing and extension
148
denaturing in PCR
increase temp to 98℃ to break hydrogen bond and separate DNA strands
149
annealing in PCR
decrease temp to 60 to allow primers pair to complementary DNA
150
Extension
temp to 72 to replicate DNA to build new DNA strand
151
taq polymerase
heat resistant DNA polymerase
152
Gel electrophoresis
use electrical current to move molecules
153
DNA has a slightly positive charge
true or false
false
slightly negative charge
154
gel electrophoresis characteristics
small fragments move faster/ further
organized according to size
DNA dyed after using fluorescent
155
Translation into proteins occurs in the…
ribosome
156
polypeptides
sequences of amino acids
157
genome
all the DNA in a nucleus
158
chromosome
long strands of DNA packed around histones
159
gene
sections of DNA that translates into a protein
160
codon
three sequence bases that translates into an amico acid
161
mitosis and the importance
a type of nuclear division that produces two genetically identical diploid. Helps cells repair and replace dead cells
162
4 stages in meiosis and mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase (cytokenisis)
163
types of cells that undergo mitosis
somatic cells
164
interphase and prophase in mitosis
DNA replication
chromatins condenses into chromosomes→sister chromatids appear
nuclear membrane disappears
165
metaphase in mitosis
sister chromatids line up at the equator
166
anaphase in mitosis
spindle fibers pulls sister chromatids to the opposite poles
167
telophase in mitosis
nuclear membrane reappears
168
cytokenesis
divide cells
169
mitosis type of reproduction
asexual reproduction
170
mitosis numbers of nuclear division and results of the number of cells
1, 2 identical daughter cells
171
meiosis
type of nuclear division that produces haploid genetically unique daughter cells which will form gametes for sexual reproduction
172
gametes
reproductive cells; ova or egg cells for females and sperm for males
173
meiosis I, prophase I
chromatin condenses into chromosomes
synapsis occurs and forms a tetrad → chromosomes binds to the corresponding chromosomes
crossover, exchange alleles
nuclear membrane disappears
174
meiosis Imetaphase I
homologous chromosomes line up at the equator and spindle fibers attach
175
meiosis I anaphase I
homologous chromosomes gets seperated towards the opposite poles of the cell
176
meiosis I telophase I
nuclear membrane reforms
177
chromatins
long,loose and linear forms of DNA
178
chromatids
the halves of a chromosome
179
homologous chromosomes
chromosomes that is one from the mom and one is from the dad
180
sister chromatids
identical copies of the same chromosome made during DNA replication
181
haploid
the halves ;23
182
deploid
2 sets of chromosomes; 46
183
non-disjunction
when they fail to seperate homologous chromsomes or sister chromatids properly during anaphase
bio
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