1
Q
What are some features of a highly fertile beef herd?
A
- Calving pattern length 8wks in cows, 6 wks in heifers)
- 70% females calve in first cycle
- Calving rate >95%
- Heiffers calve down as 2 yo
- Heiffer dystocia rate <5%
2
Q
What are 7 habits for effective heifer and cow management?
A
- Calving pattern
- Heifer critical mating weights
- Heifer weaning
- Heifer nutrition
- Parasite control
- Reproductive diseases
- Selection of heifers for joining
3
Q
At what % bodyweight should we aim to start joining beef heifers? At what age to beef calves wean?
A
60-65%
100 days from when the last calf was born (min) to 6 months (max). As a rule of thumb: calves can be weaned when cow CS falls to 2-2.5
4
Q
Why are younger beef herds better?
A
- Cow value declines after 6-7 years
- Bodyweight peaks at 7-8 years
- Weaning weights of calves decline in older cows
- Older cows are more likely to die (cancers, grass tetany)
- more flexibility to cull for genetic gain
5
Q
When should preg testing be done in a beef herd?
A
Depends on joining period length:
Short joining period- heifers at 6-8 weeks after joining finishes, cows at weaning
Longer- 16 weeks (10c piece cotyledons) of gestation. if more than 8 week joining period, preg test 8 weeks later
6
Q
What are uncompensible defects relative to sperm? How can their effects be avoided?
A
“toxic sperm”= sperm that still work but don’t work well. they can fertilise an egg but the fertilised egg will often die
Know the hix of the bull, own it for 70d before joining, don’t use sick injured bulls for at least 70d
7
Q
What is the bull:cow ration for dairy and beef cattle?
A
Dairy 1:30
Beef 1:50
8
Q
What should beef bulls be vaccinated against?
A
5 in 1 leptospirosis vibriosis pestivirus others... (depends)
9
Q
What things might affect pregnancy rates in Australian beef herds?
A
- Heifer weights
- Callving patterns
- Fertility of bulls
- Bull:cow ratio
- Nutrition
- Venereal diseases
10
Q
What is the definition of a fertile bull? How about a subfertile bull?
A
One that can impregnate by natural service at least 60% and 90% of 50 normal cycling disease free cows within 3 and 9 weeks respectively
Sub: Can achieve pregnancies by natural service but not at the rate of fertile bulls and can produce viable semen but cannot achieve pregnancies by natural service
11
Q
A full veterinary bull breeding soundness exam includes…?
A
- Identification
- Hx
- General physical exam
- Examination of testes and scrotal sizing
- crush side semen evaluation
- Serving ability testing
- Semen morphology testing
12
Q
If the testicles of a bull were either soft or firm would this be okay?
A
No, should check sperm morphology
13
Q
Preputial prolapse is most common in which breeds?
A
Bos indicus
14
Q
What age group of bulls is most prone to prepuce stenosis? What about papillomas?
A
2-4 yo (this is a high risk condition)
1-2 years old
15
Q
What things are involved in a general physical exam of a bull?
A
- Identify the bull
- CS
- Check the eyes
- Sheath structure
- Examine the hooves
- Examine leg structure and conformation
- Examine gait
- Reproductive organs
16
Q
What do you check in a crush side semen evaluation?
What criteria allow a pass/tick?
A
- Gross motility/ mass activity (waves)- undiluted, 40x, no cover slip
- Individual motility (high power, diluted semen)
Criteria: no blood/urine, no pus/flocculent material, 200 sperm per 100x field, 60% progressively motile sperm for a tick (30-59% for a pass)
17
Q
What might affect a bull’s serving ability?
A
- Haematomas, persistent frenulum, preputial trauma etc may affect erection
- corkscrew penis, dorsal analgesia, pain etc may affect intromission
- Neural pathology or pain may prevent ejaculation
18
Q
How do you assess semen morphology?
A
8 drops semen in bufferd formol saline. Should have 70% normal sperm for AI
19
Q
What is Countdown Downunder?
A
Program funded by dairy Aust. with an aim to increase farm profitability and improve milk quality
20
Q
What changes occur to the milk of a cow with mastitis?
A
- Decreased lactose -> influx of sodium and chloride ions
- Decreased casein (and increased albumin and globulin)
- Increased plasmin (decomposes casein)
- Increased lipase (degrades milk fats)
21
Q
Payments to milk producers are affected by what milk quality factors?
A
BMCC
Total plate counts
Bactoscan
Thermoduric count
22
Q
What is the rosette of Furstenburg?
A
Internal opening of the teat canal which contains lymphocytes and plasma cells
23
Q
What are some general risk factors for mastitis?
A
- Age and parity
- Stage of lactation
- Teat conformation/ condition
- Production
- Selenium and Vit E status
- Previous mastitis
24
Q
What are some management risk factors for mastitis?
A
- Environment (cleanliness of laneways etc)
- Milking practices
- Seasonal conditions
25
What are some infectious and non-infectious diseases of the bovine udder and teats we were presented with?
Non-infectious:
- Udder oedema
- Rupture of the suspensory ligament
- Photosensitisation
- Narrow teat orifice
- Teat spiders
- Teat peas
- Teat cracks
- Blood in milk
Infectious:
- Bovine herpes mammillitis
- Cowpox
- Pseudocowpox
- Warts
- Blackspot
- Udder impetigo
- Ringworm
26
What causes udder oedema?
Interference of venous drainage resulting from pressure of the foetus in the pelvic cavity. In heiffers, it may be due to the increase in blood supply not being matched by adequate drainage. If a herd problem, excessive feeding prior to calving, over fat heiffers or increased sodium and/or potassium
27
How might you treat cystic ovaries in cattle?
1. Manual rupture of cysts (risk of ovarian haemorrhage and adhesions)
2. GnRH IM
3. hCG
4. P4 releasing device such as a CIDR or CueMate
28
How does a freemartin occur? How can you diagnose a freemartin?
Chorionic placental blood vessels form a common circulation between foetuses prior to sexual differentiation allowing AMH and testosterone secreted by male to inhibit development of female tract.
Diagnose with probe in vagina (5-8cm compared with 10-15)
29
What are some risk factors for RFMs in cattle?
1. Slow calvings/ dystocias
2. Low energy (-> slow calvings)
3. Low calcium
4. Infection (slows maturation)
30
What are some risk factors for Endometritis in cattle? Think about tx/ prevention based on these factors.
1. RFMs or metritis
2. Still birth/ calf dies within 24hrs
3. Twins
4. Dystocia
5. Milk Fever
6. Vaginal discharge
7. Calving Induction
31
What are some indications for a c-section in a cow?
1. Foeto-pelvic disproportion (live calf)
2. Valuable calf
3. Elective pre-parturient (eg. anticipated dystocias)
4. Foetal monsters
5. Dead emphysematous calf
6. Uterine torsion
32
What are some risk factors for uterine prolapse?
- Old age
- Multiparous
- Hypocalcaemia
- Dystocia
- Sloped bedding
33
For optimal reproductive performance, what body condition score should dairy cows be in?
4.5-5.4
34
What are some suggestive signs of pregnancy on per rectal exam (4)? What are some definitive signs?
1. A change in size and location of the reproductive tract
2. Detection of fluid in the uterine lumen
3. Middle uterine artery enlargement (fremitus)
4. A heavy cervix
Definitive signs:
1. Palpation of the chorioallantois using the foetal membrane slip
2. Palpation of he amniotic vesicle
3. Palpation of the placentomes
4. Palpation of the foetus
35
What are the approximate sizes of the bovine foetus at 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 weeks?
6= sausage, 8= fist, 10= boxing glove, 12= football, 14= basketball
36
What are the approximate sizes of the bovine placentomes at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 months?
```
3= 5c piece
4= 10c piece (plus fremitus pulse)
5= 50c piece
6= bantam egg
7= chicken egg (proper fremitus on both sides)
8= duck egg
```
37
A sector scanner is useful during what weeks of pregnancy?
4-16 weeks (above 17w unreliable)
38
An experienced operator using a linear US can determine foetal sex at what age?
Between 55 and 70 d
39
```
What is a submission rate?
Conception rate?
Pregnancy rate?
6 wk in calf rate?
100 day in calf rate?
Empty rate?
```
Submission: % cows submitted in first 21 (or 30) d
Conception rate: % cow preg per 100 inseminations
Pregnancy rate:% herd preg after given time
6 wk in calf rate: % herd preg after 6wk joining
100 day in calf rate: % herd preg within 100 days calving
Empty rate: % herd empty after given no. of weeks
40
Lameness represents about 10% of cattle calls. How many of these are forelimb/hindlimb lameness?
FL: 10%
HL: 90%
41
What predisposing causes may lead to lameness in cattle?
```
Environment
Management factors
Infectious agents
Nutrition
Hereditary
```
42
How might you do an interdigital nerve block in a cow?
| How might you do regional intravenous anaesthesia for the lower limb of a cow?
Inject local anaesthetic between the digits just distal to the fetlock (anaesthetises the medial aspects of the claws)
Place a tourniquet around limb below carpus/tarsus. Palpate lateral digital vein and inject lignocaine (18g needle)
43
What is the white line of the hoof?
Layer of soft horn uniting the sole and wall
44
What is footrot? How might you treat it?
INFECTIOUS disease of cattle characterised by necrotising infection of the interdigital cleft combined with symmetric cellulitis of the digital area. Caused by F. necrophorum.
Responds to sulphadimidine sodium and procaine penicillin
45
What is Hairy Heelwart?
Aka digital dermatitis. It is a very painful, contagious disease causing wart-like areas on the back of the hind feet, on the bulb of the heel or near the interdigital cleft. Lesions can be erosive/reactive or proliferative.
Uncommon in Aust.
46
What does digital dermatitis look like?
In early stages of disease, hair is erect. Then disappears. In erosive from, skin has purulent exudate. Reddish granulation tissue with concave surface when cleaned.
47
Which feet are more commonly affected by aseptic traumatic pododermatitis? What is it?
Hind feet. Lateral aspect
Bruising of the sole
48
What is septic traumatic pododermatitis?
Results from FB penetrating the horn
49
What is white line disease?
Disintegration of the fibrous junction between the sole and wall and its penetration by debris. (Drainage is essential)
50
What is sand crack? How is it different to axial wall cracks?
Vertical split in the hoof wall extending from the coronet to a variable distance along the direction of growth. Can be fissures if the coronet or fissures of the wall
Axial wall cracks occur in or adjacent to the axial groove of the medial hoof wall and are often present without causing lameness
51
What usually causes horizontal fissures of the hoof wall?
Generally related to a severe upset in metabolism (eg. Mastitis, metritis etc)
52
What are some basic principles of treating bovine hoof conditions?
1. Remove any under rum or excess claw
2. Establish drainage that prevents dirt and gravel being trapped
3. Transfer weight away from injury site
4. Treat any infection
53
In minimising lameness in cattle, what four main factors should be taken into consideration?
1. Cow behaviour (need space, need to see where placing foot etc)
2. Stockmanship (no pressure, corrective backing gate use)
3. Laneway design (wide, well drained, no loose gravel)
4. Yard surface (rocks and gravel)
54
Describe the Australian lameness scoring system
0. Walks normally
1. Walks unevenly (should be watched)
2. Lame (but walks at normal speed)
3. Very lame
55
When examining a front foot, always.....?
...apply a tail jack or rope the hind foot
56
What are some safety considerations when attaching a rope to a hind foot?
- Don't place arm through side of crush
- Don't place head below stifle
- Use a pulley
- Don't place face near hind foot
- Secure foot in horizontal and vertical dircetions
57
Describe how you would lift a hind foot with a rope?
Slip knot above hock, rope over rail, then back around hock, then up to rail on other side.
58
What is the 8 step examination process when examining lameness in cattle?
1. Observe cow walking- which leg is lame?
2. Check for swelling above hoof (footrot/ septic arthritis)
3. Check external surface for cracks
4. Check the interdigital space for infection/ FBs
5. Remove superficial surface of sole and check for ulcers, bleeding and penetration
6. Check the white line
7. Use hoof testers to find sensitive areas
8. Check the rest of the leg
59
What are the four principles of treatment in dealing with lameness in cattle?
1. Remove any underrun or excess claw
2. Establish drainage (prevent trapping of dirt and gravel)
3. Transfer weight away from injury site
4. Treat any infection
60
How does an axial wall crack arise?
Probably from damage to the coronet (crack goes downward)
61
What are some indications for toe aputation in a cow?
Septic arthritis
Severe tenosynovitis
Osteomyelitis of P3
62
What is the normal resp rate of a cow?
10-30bpm
63
What is the recommended tx for pulmonary oedema?
Adrenalin due to anaphylaxis
64
Three categories of pneumonia are commonly recognised. What are they?
1. Bronchopneumonia= pathogens gain access to lung through pulmonary tree= final outcome of bovine respiratory disease complex
2. Interstitial pneumonias= non-infectious damage to alveolar septa by inhaled allergens or toxins
3. Metastatic or embolic pneumonia= septic embolism of the lung from other foci in the body.
65
What is bovine respiratory disease complex?
Respiratory disease caused by a wide array of organisms including:
- Mannheima haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida
- Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
- Parainfluenza 3
- Bovine respiratory syncytial virus
- Mycoplasma species
- Histophilus somni
66
Which resp diseases are common in
a) calves and young stock
b) growing stock
c) other
a) enzootic pneumonia, histophilus somni disease complex, calf diptheria and lungworm
b) BRD complex, Acute undiff bovine resp disease, aspiration pneumonia, pulmonary haemorrhage, pleuritis, mycotic pneumonia, interstitial pneumonias, anaphylaxis and nasal granuloma
c) exotic (TB, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia), poisonings (nitrate, cyanide and ammonia)
67
What is enzootic pneumonia? What agents are associated with it?
What are some clinical signs?
Resp disease of young calves= viral (dairy calf) pneumonia
Occurs in calves housed, young (2-5 mon) and immunosuppressed (poor ventilation/ crowding)
Parainfluenza 3, paramyxovirus, BHV-1, bovine resp syncytial virus, BVDV, mycoplasma
Rhinitis, pneumonia, mild D+, fever, harsh hacking cough, lound harsh lung sounds over ventral aspect
68
How do you dx and tx enzootic pneumonia?
Dx: get down and see if you can smell ammonia! Dark red blotchy lungs on PM and atelectasis
Tx: A/Bs and supportive care
69
What is Histophilus somni disease complex? How do you confirm dx?
What are the three forms?
Primary resp disease or part of BRD complex caused by inhalation of histophilus somni-> suppurative pneumonia!
Dx: haemorrhagic necrosis in brain, pure cultures from heart, joints, lungs, conjunctival sacs...
1. Respiratory form-> URTD (laryngitis/ tracheitis) and LRTD severe fibrinous pleuritis, pulmonary abscess and primary suppurative bronchopneumonia)
2. Septic form
3. Neurological form-> thrombo-embolic meningoencephalitis-> fever, depression, lameness, inccordination, swollen joints etc.
70
What are some risk factors to Histophilus somni? How may it be treated?
Feedlot calves, stress, housing
| ABs (oxytet, penicillin, potentiated sulphonamides)
71
What is calf diptheria? What are some clinical signs? How do you treat?
Resp disease caused by F. necrophorum causing inspiratory stridor
coughing/ vocalisation-> irritation of larynx-> secondary infection-> oral and laryngeal necrobacillosis.
Tx: long course of ABs and long acting CSs (dexafort)
72
Lungworm:
- What is it?
- What are some CSs?
- How do you dx?
- How do you tx?
- coughing calves on pasture. Caused by Dictyocaulus viviparus
- If mild-> coughing, shallow rapid breathing, nasal discharge. If severe-> sit down and die quietly
- Detect L1 in faeces, find adults in bronchioles
- MLs
73
With regards to feedlot cattle, when do you normally see BRD complex? What causes it? What are some predisposing factors? What is the treatment for it?
Within 4 weeks of entry
Stress-> lowered immunity-> viral infection-> damage to respiratory system-> bacterial prolif-> pneumonia and lung damage
Farm mngt, transport/ time without feed, co-mingling, nutrition, climate
Macrolide ABs
See cranioventral consolidation
74
What is "backgrounding"?
The term used to describe getting cattle ready for entry into feedlot.
75
What are some preventative measures for BRD complex?
Pestivirus eradication and/or vacc
Vaccination against Mannheima or IBR
Backgrounding
76
What is Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis?
What does it cause?
What are some clinical signs?
Highly infectious resp disease caused by BHV-1.
Causes "respiratory disease with white plaques on eyes/nose". May also causeencephalitis in new-born calves, and infectious pustulovulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis in adults
CSs: Rhinotracheitis, conjunctivitis, fever
77
What is acute undifferentiated Bovine respiratory disease? What are some CSs?
=BRD complex in non-feedlot cattle ("Sick cow with lung sounds")
CSs= fever, dyspnoea, coughing, nasal discharge, evidence of bronchopneumonia on auscultation, non-specific signs resulting from toxaemia.
(Tx with ABs)
78
Aspiration pneumonia in cows commonly occurs secondary to what?
Commonly a sequel to milk fever where animal has been in lateral recumbency and has aspirated regurgitated rumen contents
May also occur with poor admin of oral medication/ feed
79
Pulmonary haemorrhage often occurs due to what? What are some CSs?
Caudal vena caval syndrome which occurs secondary to septic emboli from a thrombus of the caudal VC
CSs: Epistaxis, tachypnoea, pale mm, fever, death
80
What is pleuritis?
=rare resp disease but a ddx for abdo/ thoracic pain
| Occurs secondary to other diseases and has characteristic "friction sounds". See fibrin on lung surface
81
What is mycotic pneumonia? How does it present?
caused by Mortierella wolfii (or aspergillus).
Seen as pneumonia within a week of abortion. Cows die within 1-4 days.
Very sick cows. White fungal plaques in lungs at PM
82
What is fog fever? what respiratory disease does it lead to? What are some CSs?
Fog/ sunny morning, clover has high level of L-tryptophan. Rumen converts this to 3-methylindole which causes toxic injury to the lung.-> interstitial pneumonia and death within 2 weeks
CSs: laboured openmouthed breathing, protrusion of tongue, expiratory grunt, frothing at mouth, interlobular emphysema, lung consolidation.
83
What drug is often seen to cause anaphylaxis?
Long-acting CSs to induce premature calving -> genralised oedema with resp signs (soft coughing and orthopnea, swollen eyes, anus and vulva)
Tx with adrenalin!!
84
What is often the cause of nasal granulomas?
FBs! Jerseys with sticks up their nose
85
What is contagious bovine pleuropneumonia?
An exotic disease caused by mycoplasma mycoides. Causes a very acute pneumonia and is very infectious
=Kennel cough of cows
86
What causes TB? How does it look?
Mycobacterium bovis. Lungs with many abscesses. ZOONOTIC
87
How does nitrate-> poisoning?
Green grass with nitrate-> nitrite-> blood oxidises haemoglobin to methaemoglobin
88
When assessing swellings on cattle, what sort of questions would dictate your approach to diagnosis and treatment?
```
Are lesions structural or functional?
Are they primary or secondary
Are systemic signs present?
Is the condition acute or chronic?
Are the lesions discrete or diffuse?
What structures are involved?
What type of pathological process is suspected?
What is the "most important" CS?
```
89
What is enzootic bovine leukosis?
What does it cause?
An infectious (NOTIFIABLE) disease of cattle- retrovirus.
Decreased production, progressive weight loss, regulatory restrictions. <5% infected animals show clinical signs of lymphosarcoma. ~30% develop non-neoplastic lymphocytosis
90
How is enzootic bovine leukosis diagnosed? How is it transmitted? Is it in Australia
Serology or milk vat testing
Vertical and horizantal transmission (including vet instruments)
Eradicated from Australian Dairy herds but not beef herds
91
What is Sporadic enzootic bovine leukosis? How is it diagnosed? What are the clinical signs?
Fatal disease of cattle for which the aetiology is unclear. It is NOT BLV. More commonly seen in young animals (<3yo cf BLV which is >5yo). Dx: presenceof leukaemia, anaemia + serology
CSs:
Juvenile multicentric form: symmetrical LN enlargement, weight loss death
Thymic form: mass around thoracic inlet, dysphagia, resp distress
Cutaneous form: Grey or white hyperkeratotic plaques
92
What are some Ddx for the following?
a) Drooping ears
b) Swellings on the head
c) Excessive licking or chewing
a) otitis externa, listeriosis
b) abscess, actinomycosis, tumours
c) hypomagnesaemia, lead poisoning, phosphorus deficiency, ketosis, FB, BSE
93
What does listeriosis cause in cattle?
Unilateral facial paralysis (no menace reflex, droopy ear, tongue weakness), encephalitis, abortion, iritis, depression, inappetant
(tx with ABs)
94
What are some clinical signs of otitis media?
tilted head, mild circling, purulent discharge, droopy ear
95
What are some signs of anaphylaxis? How do you treat?
Generalized oedema with respiratory signs (dyspnoea, cyanosis, death). Often following vacc, transfusions or CSs
Need adrenaline quickly (1-5mg)
96
What are some ddx for an inflamed eye?
infectious bovine keratoconjunctivotis
SCC
Systemic illnesses such as bovine herpesvirus, MCF, septicaemia, anaphylaxis
97
What is MCF?
What are clinical signs?
Malignant cattarhal fever= acute, fatal sporadic disease affecting 1-3 you that have come into contact with sheep infected with ovine herpes virus. there are 3 forms: Head/eye, Peracute and mild
CSs: conjunctivitis, ocular and nasal discarhge (MP), eyelid oedema, corneal opacity (progressing from the limbus), hypopyon, severe mouth and nose lesions, pyrexia, fragile mm
CAN"T TREAT
98
What is bovine iritis?
disease of Northern hemisphere caused by listeria monoctogenes. Causes iritis, uveitis, keratitis, epiphora, blepharospasm, vascular engorgement, corneal opacity and temporary blindness. ="SIlage eye"
99
Cows are born with 6 temporary "milk incisors". True or False? When do permanent incisors erupt?
False. They are born with 8
2 perm @22-34 months
4 @ 27-40 months
6 @ 33-42
8@ 40+ months
100
Mucosal vesicles are suggestive of what diseases?
Exotic: FMD, Vesicular stomatitis
Endemic: BVD (more erosions though)
MCF
BT
Bovine papular stomatitis
101
What is actinobacillosis? How can you treat?
=woody tongue
Actinobacillus lignieresi= opportunistic infection of soft tissue sec to trauma-> pyogranulomatous lesions, inappetance, salivation, submandibular swelling.
Oxytet or sodium iodide or both :)
102
What causes lumpy jaw? What is it?
Actinomyces bovis
Osteomyelitis of mandible post trauma->pain, difficulty chewing, unilateral swelling, discharging sinuses, yellowish sticky pus (treat same as woody tongue)
103
Name 10 preventable diseases in bulls?
```
Tatanus/ clostridials
lepto
Vibriosis
Pestivirus
Pink eye
Salmonellosis
Bovine resp disease
Botulism
Ephemeral fever
Anthrax
```
104
What are the components of the VBBSE exam?
```
Scrotum
General PE
Crush side semen evaluation
Serving ability testing
Semen morphology testing
```
DVM3
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