1
Q
What occurs during the contact process?
A
-not all contacts lead to colonization
2
Q
What occurs during the infection process?
A
- a condition in which pathogenic microorganisms penetrate host defenses, enter the tissues and multiply.
- not all infections lead to disease
- contact to colonization to infection to disease
3
Q
What occurs during the disease process?
A
-any deviation from health
-factors that cause disease: Infections,diet,genetics, and aging
Infectious disease: disruption of tissue or organs caused by microbes or their products
4
Q
What terms are used to describe resident flora?
A
- indigenous biota
- normal flora
5
Q
What types of organisms make up resident flora?
A
-array of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses
6
Q
What is the name of the infection if arises from patients own microbes?
A
Endogenous Infection??
7
Q
When and how is the newborn colonized with flora?
A
- doctors and scientists believe that fetuses are seeded when normal microbiota in utero
- exposure occurs during the birth process, when the baby becomes colonized with the mothers vaginal biota
- c-section babies are colonized by adult skin biota.
- -Contact with birth canal during birth
- Feeding
- Other human contact
- -8-12 hours after delivery
8
Q
Where are resident flora located?
A
--large and diverse collection or microbes living on and in the body Most areas of the body in contact with the outside environment harbor resident microbes: -GI Tract Oral Cavity Lg. Intestine Rectum -Genital Tract -Upper Respiratory Tract -Skin -Urinary Tract -External Eye Lids & Lash Follicles -Ear External Ear & Canal
9
Q
Where are resident flora not located?
A
Internal organs & tissues & fluids are microbe-free
- Lung
- Sinus
- Kidney
- Blood
- Fetus
10
Q
What is microbial antagonism?
A
- The generally antagonistic effect good microbes have against intruder microorganisms
- microbes in a stead, established relationship are unlikely to be displaced by incoming microbes
11
Q
What are opportunistic pathogens?
A
Causes disease
- when the host defenses are compromised
- when they become established in a part of the body that is not natural to them
12
Q
How do opportunistic pathogens compare to true pathogens?
A
True Pathogens: Cause disease in healthy person with normal immune defense
Opportunistic Pathogens: Cause disease in immune comp’d. host and/or cause disease when access to sterile environment is gained
(endog. and exog.)
13
Q
What type of factors weaken host defenses?
A
- Old age and extreme youth (infancy, prematurity)
- Genetic defects in immunity and acquired defects in immunity (AIDS)
- Surgery and organ transplants
- Organic disease: cancer, liver malfunction, diabetes
- Chemotherapy/immunosuppresive drugs
- Physical and mental stress
- Other infections
14
Q
What are examples of virulence factors?
A
–traits used to invade and establish themselves in the host, also determine the degree of tissue damage that occurs- severity of disease
- People who are carriers of mutation in their hemoglobin gene, have few or no sickle-cell disease syndromes but are more resistant to malaria than people who have no mutations in their hemoglobin genes
- People of west African are more likely to have one or two sickle-cell alleles. Malaria is endemic in West Africa and it seems the hemoglobin mutation is adaptation of the human host to its long-standing relationship with the malaria protozoan.
- researchers have found a gene that correlates with how people react to infections with the swine flu virus. The gene codes for a protein that blocks viral entry into cells. People who have mid flu symptoms were found to have the gene, where those who become ill and died were likely to have a mutation of this gene.
15
Q
What is TORCH?
A
TORCH is common infections of the fetus and neonate
T: Toxoplasmosis
O: Other Diseases- syphilis, coxsackievirus, varicella-zoster virus, AIDS, chlamydia
R: Rubella
C: Cytomegalovirus
H: Herpes simplex virus
16
Q
What are exotoxins?
A
-secreted by a living bacterial cell to the infected tissues
17
Q
What are characteristics of exotoxins?
A
- Toxicity: toxic in minute amounts
- Effects on the body: specific to a cell type(blood, liver, nerve) induced TNF production resulting in fever
- Chemical composition: small proteins
- Heat denaturation at 60 degrees Celsius: unstable
- Toxoid formation: can be converted to toxoid
- Immune response: stimulate antitoxins
- Fever stimulation: usually not
- Manner of release: secreted from the live cell
- Typical sources: a few gram-positive and negatives
18
Q
How are exotoxins named?
A
A toxin molecule secreted by a living bacterial cell into the infect tissues
19
Q
What is the function of kinase?
A
Enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to an intracellular protein.
-break up blood clots, enabling bacteria to spread
20
Q
What is the function of coagulase?
A
Aa bacterial enzyme that brings about the coagulation (blood clotting) of blood or plasma and is produced by disease-causing forms of staphylococcus.
21
Q
What is the function of enterotoxins?
A
A toxin in or affecting the intestines, such as those causing food poisoning for cholera.
22
Q
What is the function of hyaluronidase?
A
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of hyaluronic acid
- found in human testes
- holds animal cells together
23
Q
What is the function of hemolysin?
A
- a class of bacterial exotoxins
- disrupts the cell membrane of red blood cells
- damage causes the red blood cells to burst and release hemoglobin (hemolyze)
24
Q
What is the function of mucinase?
A
Digests the protective coating on mucous membranes and is a factor in amoebic dysentery
25
What is the function of keratinase?
Digests the principal component of skin and hair, and is secreted by fungi that cause ringworm
26
What are characteristics of endotoxins?
- Toxicity: toxic in high. Doses
- Effects on the body: Systemic:fever and inflammation
- Chemical composition: lipopolysaccharide of cell wall
- Heat denaturation at 60 degrees Celsius: stable
- Toxoid formation: cannot be converted to toxoid
- Immune response: does not stimulate antitoxins
- Manner or release: released by cell via shedding or during lysis
- Typical sources: all gram-negative bacteria
27
What are antiphagocytic factors?
Those that prevent phagocytosis by the hosts phagocytic cells
-allow pathogens to remain in a host for a longer time
28
What is the difference between sign and symptom?
Sign:any objective evidence of disease as noted by an observer
Symptom: subjective evidence of disease as sensed by the patient
29
What are examples of signs?
```
Fever
Septicemia
Microbes in tissue fluids
Chest sounds
Skin eruptions
Leukocytosis
Leukopenia
Swollen lymph nodes
Abscesses
Tachycardia (increased heart rate)
Antibodies in serum
```
30
What are examples of symptoms?
```
Chills
Pain ache soreness irritation
Malaise
Fatigue
Chest tightness
Itching
Headache
Nausea
Abdominal cramps
Anorexia
Sore throat
```
31
What occurs during intoxication?
Bacterial toxins are chemical products made by bacteria. A person ingests some honey containing Clostridium botulinum. The C. botulinum is actively growing and releases toxin in the honey. The person becomes ill from ingesting the toxin
32
What is an infectious dose?
-a minimum number of microbes required for an infection to proceed
33
What are droplet nuclei?
particles 1–10 mcm in diameter, implicated in spread of airborne infection; the dried residue formed by evaporation of droplets coughed or sneezed into the atmosphere or by aerosolization of infective material
34
How do the greatest number of pathogens enter the human body?
the respiratory system
35
What is epidemiology?
the branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health.
36
What is the role of the CDC in the US?
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is a federal agency that conducts and supports health promotion, prevention and preparedness activities in the United States with the goal of improving overall public health
37
What is mortality rate?
the number of deaths in a given area or period, or from a particular cause
38
What is morbidity rate?
The morbidity rate is the frequency with which a disease appears in a population. Morbidity rates are used in actuarial professions, such as health insurance, life insurance and long-term care insurance, to determine the correct premiums to charge to customers.
39
What is incidence rate?
The incidence rate is the number of new cases per population at risk in a given time period . When the denominator is the sum of the person-time of the at risk population, it is also known as the incidence density rate or person-time incidence rate.
40
What is prevalence rate?
Prevalence is the proportion of people in a population who have a particular disease at a specified point in time, or over a specified period of time. The numerator includes not only new cases, but also old cases (people who remained ill during the specified point or period in time).
41
What is epidemic?
a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.
42
What is endemic?
a disease that exists permanently in a particular region or population. Malaria is a constant worry in parts of Africa.
43
What is pandemic?
When an epidemic spreads throughout the world.
44
What is sporadic?
occurring at irregular intervals or only in a few places; scattered or isolated.
45
What is fomite?
An inanimate object that harbors and transmits a pathogen
46
What is carrier?
Someone who inconspicuously harbors a pathogen and spreads it to others
47
What is asymptomatic infection?
infections that go unnoticed because there are no symptoms
48
What is vector?
An animal, such as an arthropod, that transmits a pathogen from one host to another is a vector
49
What is source?
The intermediary object or individual from which the infectious agent is actually acquired is termed the source
50
What is reservoir?
The primary, natural habitat of a pathogen where it continues to exist
51
What are common portals of entry and exit?
- urogenital
- respiratory
- gastrointestinal tract
52
What is acute infections?
- come on rapidly
| - have short-lived effects
53
What is local infections?
-microbes enters the body and remains confined to a specific tissue
Like boils, fungal skin infections, warts
54
What is chronic infections?
-progress and persist over a long period of time
55
What is secondary infections?
-occurs when a primary infection is complicated by another infection caused by a different microbe
56
What is the difference between direct and indirect contact?
Direct contact:transmission occurs when there is physical contact between an infected person and a susceptible person.
Indirect contact:transmission occurs when there is no direct human-to-human contact. Contact occurs from a reservoir to contaminated surfaces or objects, or to vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rodents or dogs.
57
What is the goal/function of the Human Microbiome Project?
was a United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) initiative with the goal of identifying and characterizing the microorganisms which are found in association with both healthy and diseased humans (the human microbiome).
58
What is the difference between mechanical and biological vectors?
Biological Vector: An arthropod vector in whose body the infecting organism develops or multiplies before becoming infective to the recipient individual.
Mechanical Vector: An arthropod vector which transmits an infective organism from one host to another but which is not essential to the life cycle of the parasite.
Biological
Tick - Lyme Disease
Mosquitoes - Malaria
Sand fly - Leishmania
Mechanical
Housefly picking up salmonella with its feet and depositing it on human food
59
What is nosocomial infections?
is an infection that is contracted from the environment or staff of a healthcare facility. It can be spread in the hospital environment, nursing home environment, rehabilitation facility, clinic, or other clinical settings.
60
What are Koch's Postulates used to determine?
-establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease
-study of infection and disease is determining the etiology if agent
-
61
What is a sequelae?
A condition that is the consequence of a previous disease or injury
62
What are some examples of sequelae?
Long-term or permanent damage to organs and tissues
| -polio
63
What is a zoonosis?
A disease that can be transmitted to humans from animals
64
What is a convalescent carrier?
a person who is clinically recovered from an infectious disease but still capable of transmitting the infectious agent to others.
65
What is a chronic carrier?
-an individual who acts as host to pathogenic organisms for an extended period without displaying any signs of disease.
66
What methods are used in Universal Precautions?
- barrier precautions
- needle stick precautions
- precautions with dental hand pieces
- decontamination after hands and surfaces have been contaminated its blood and other fluids
- healthcare workers with active, draining skin or mucous membrane lesions must refrain from handling patients
67
What are components of the first line of defense?
- barriers that block invasion at the portal of entry
- does not involve recognition of foreign substances
- general in action
68
What are examples of physical barriers to pathogens?
```
Skin
Hair follicles
Sweat glands
Mucous membranes
Respiratory tract
Genitourinary tract
Resistant microbiota
```
69
What protects the skin?
-epithelial cells compacts, cemented together, and impregnated with karatin
70
What are examples of nonspecific chemical defenses?
--Skin and mucous membranes
-sebaceous segregation exert an antimicrobial effect
--Lysozyme:
-found in tears and saliva
-hydrolysis peptidoglycan in the cell walls f bacterial
--lactic acid and electrolytes concentrations in sweat
--skins acidic pH and fat acid content
--Stomach: Hydrochloric acid
Intestines: digestive juices, bile
--Other: semen has antimicrobial chemicals
-vagina has a protective acidic pH maintained by normal biota
71
What is lysozymes effect?
Lysozyme:
- found in tears and saliva
- hydrolysis peptidoglycan in the cell walls f bacterial
- lactic acid and electrolytes concentrations in sweat
- skins acidic pH and fat acid content
72
Where are lysozymes found?
-found in tears and saliva
73
What is ciliary escalator?
The mucociliary escalator is a major barrier against infection. Microorganisms hoping to infect the respiratory tract are caught in the sticky mucus and moved up by the mucociliary escalator
74
What is the function of the immune system?
The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body. One of the important cells involved are white blood cells, also called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.
75
What is plasma?
Plasma: The liquid part of the blood and lymphatic fluid, which makes up about half of the volume of blood. Plasma is devoid of cells and, unlike serum, has not clotted. Blood plasma contains antibodies and other proteins. It is taken from donors and made into medications for a variety of blood-related conditions.
76
What are plasma cells?
Plasma cell, short-lived antibody-producing cell derived from a type of leukocyte (white blood cell) called a B cell. B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modeled after the receptors of the precursor B cell. Once released into the blood and lymph, these antibody molecules bind to the target antigen (foreign substance) and initiate its neutralization or destruction. Antibody production continues for several days or months, until the antigen has been overcome.
77
What do plasma cells secrete?
Antibodies
78
What are examples of granulocytes?
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
79
Which blood cells are the least numerous of WBC and release histamine during inflammation and allergic reactions?
Basophils.
80
Which WBC make up 20-30% of those in circulation and are important in specific response?
Lymphocytes
81
What are the most numerous WBC's that are multilobed and very phagocytic?
Neutrophils
82
What WBC make up 3-7% are phagocytic and differentiate into macrophages?
Monocytes
83
What is hematopoiesis?
Hematopoiesis: The production of all types of blood cells including formation, development, and differentiation of blood cells. Prenatally, hematopoiesis occurs in the yolk sack, then in the liver, and lastly in the bone marrow. In the normal situation, hematopoiesis in adults occurs in the bone marrow and lymphatic tissues. All types of blood cells are derived from primitive cells (stem cells) that are pluripotent (they have the potential to develop into all types of blood cells)
84
What is diapedesis?
the passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.
85
What is function of lymph nodes?
They filter lymph and assist the immune system in building an immune response. Lymph is a clear fluid that comes from blood plasma that exits blood vessels at capillary beds. This fluid becomes the interstitial fluid that surrounds cells.
86
Where are lymph nodes concentrated?
Lymph nodes are concentrated in four main areas. 1.) cervical- neck region 2.) axillary- armpit area 3.) inguinal- groin 4.) deep within the abdominal cavity
87
Which lymph organ/tissue filters pathogens from the blood?
Spleen
88
What is the function of thymus?
despite containing glandular tissue and producing several hormones, is much more closely associated with the immune system than with the endocrine system. The thymus serves a vital role in the training and development of T-lymphocytes or T cells, an extremely important type of white blood cell.
89
What happens to thymus as we age?
The thymus gland, located behind your sternum and between your lungs, is only active until puberty. After puberty, the thymus starts to slowly shrink and become replaced by fat. Thymosin is the hormone of the thymus, and it stimulates the development of disease-fighting T cells
90
What is GALT?
The gastrointestinal tract's immune system is often referred to as gut-associated lymphoid tissue (or GALT) and works to protect the body from invasion. The GALT is an example of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
91
What are the S/S of inflammation?
When inflammation occurs, chemicals from the body's white blood cells are released into the blood or affected tissues to protect your body from foreign substances. This release of chemicals increases the blood flow to the area of injury or infection, and may result in redness and warmth
92
Which WBC function in allergic rxns, inflammation, contain enzymes, and target parasitic worms and fungi?
Eosinophiles
93
What occurs during phagocytosis?
Phagocytosis, process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. The phagocyte may be a free-living one-celled organism, such as an amoeba, or one of the body cells, such as a white blood cell
94
What is the difference between nonspecific and specific resistance?
Nonspecific like the skin, mucous membranes, tears, mucus and the inflammatory response... are designed with and acidic surface that, for the most part, repels bacteria and are attributable to factors other than specific antibodies. They are often called innate immunities. Specific immunity has to do with how our lymphocytes (specialized white blood cells, such as B and T Cells) that can remember a specific virus or bacteria, and the next time it shows up, there's a whole welcoming party ready with lots of demolition gear to destroy the unwelcome guests.
95
What is function of PAMPs?
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, or PAMPs, are molecules associated with groups of pathogens, that are recognized by cells of the innate immune system. These molecules can be referred to as small molecular motifs conserved within a class of microbes.
96
What are benefits of fever?
Fever is not an illness. It is a symptom, or sign that your body is fighting an illness or infection. Fever stimulates the body's defenses, sending white blood cells and other "fighter" cells to fight and destroy the cause of the infection
97
What is edema?
A condition characterized by an excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body.
98
What is complement?
the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the immune system called the "innate immune system" that is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
99
What are platelets?
A small colorless disk-shaped cell fragment without a nucleus, found in large numbers in blood and involved in clotting.
100
How are platelets formed?
Platelet Production. Platelets are produced in the bone marrow, the same as the red cells and most of the white blood cells. Platelets are produced from very large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes
101
What is the difference in B cells and T cells?
B-cells can connect to antigens right on the surface of the invading virus or bacteria. This is different from T-cells, which can only connect to virus antigens on the outside of infected cells.
102
What is the difference in humoral and cell-mediated?
Is it in humoral, antibodies may be produced and bind to antigen to attract leukocytes to phagocytize the antigen, wherease in cell-mediated, cells can combact infections directly without antibodies
103
Where are B and T cells found?
B cells are not restricted to the spleen or lymph nodes. they circulate in our blood and lymph systems and are matured into plasma cells
T cells circulate in the blood once they are fully matured in the thymus.
104
Where are humoral and cell-mediated found?
consists of antigens that are freely circulating in the body.
105
What is an antigen?
A toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
106
What are characteristics of WBC migration?
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell
107
What are the progeny of B cell clones?
Plasma cells
108
What is the function of Helper T cells?
Helper T cells are arguably the most important cells in adaptive immunity, as they are required for almost all adaptive immune responses. They not only help activate B cells to secrete antibodies and macrophages to destroy ingested microbes, but they also help activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected target cells.
109
What is the function of cell surface markers?
Cell surface markers are proteins expressed on the surface of cells that often conveniently serve as markers of specific cell types. For example, T cell and B cell surface markers identify their lineage and stage in the differentiation process
110
What is MHC?
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a set of cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules in vertebrates, which in turn determines histocompatibility.
111
What cells have MHC?
antigen-presenting cells (APCs): macrophages, B cells, and especially dendritic cells (DCs)
112
What is interferon?
a protein released by animal cells, usually in response to the entry of a virus, that has the property of inhibiting virus replication.
113
What is the function of mononuclear phagocyte system?
The cells are primarily monocytes and macrophages, and they accumulate in lymph nodes and the spleen. The Kupffer cells of the liver and tissue histiocytes are also part of the MPS.
114
What is an epitope?
the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself.
115
What are the properties of an effective antigen?
- foreign to the immune system.
- molecular complexity.
- large molecules with a minimum molecular weight of 1,000.
- cells or large, complex molecules.
116
What is a hapten?
a small molecule that, when combined with a larger carrier such as a protein, can elicit the production of antibodies that bind specifically to it (in the free or combined state).
117
What are superantigens?
are a class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release. SAgs are produced by some pathogenic viruses and bacteria most likely as a defense mechanism against the immune system.
118
What are characteristics of antigen presenting cells?
a heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cell receptor. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include macrophages, dendritic cells, langerhans cells, and B- lymphocytes.
119
What are examples of antigen presenting cells?
- Dendritic cells
- Macrophages
- B cells
MHC II, B7, CD40
120
What is neutralization?
is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively with each other. In a reaction in water, neutralization results in there being no excess of hydrogen or hydroxide ions present in solution.
121
What is opsonization?
The process by which bacteria and other cells are altered in such a manner that they are more readily and more efficiently engulfed by phagocytes
122
What is agglutionation?
the clumping together in suspension of antigen-bearing cells, microorganisms, or particles in the presence of specific antibodies
123
What is complement fixation?
The binding of active complement to a specific antigen-antibody pair used in diagnostic tests, such as the Wasserman test, to detect the presence of a specific antigen or antibody
124
What is a anamnestic response?
a bodily defense reaction that recognizes an invading substance (an antigen: such as a virus or fungus or bacteria or transplanted organ) and produces antibodies specific against that antigen
125
What do natural killer cells do?
Natural Killer NK cells
- lymphocyte related to T cells
- lack specificity for antigens
- circulate through spleen, blood, and lungs
- first killer cell to attack cancer cells and virus infected cells in a similar manner to Tc cells
- not considered part of specific cell-mediated immunity because they do not possess antigen receptors
Natural Killer T NKT cells
- recently discovered
- hybrids type: share properties of both T cells and NK cells
- stimulated by glycolipids on foreign cells
- rapidly produce cytokines, granzymes, and perforins
- trigger self-destruction in target cells
126
What do cytotoxic T cells do?
a type of white blood cell that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected (particularly with viruses), or cells that are damaged in other ways.
-the capacity of certain T cells to kill a specific target cell
127
What are memory cells?
a long-lived lymphocyte capable of responding to a particular antigen on its reintroduction, long after the exposure that prompted its production.
128
What is the difference in passive and active immunity?
Active Immunity
1. It is produced due to contact with pathogen or its antigen.
2. Immunity is not immediate. A time lapse occurs for its development.
3. It lasts for sufficiently long period, may be life long.
4. Antibodies are produced by the body in response to pathogen or antigen.
5. Side effects are very few.
Passive Immunity
1. It is produced due to antibodies obtained from outside
2. Immunity develops immediately.
3. It lasts for a few days
4. Antibodies are obtained from outside.
5. At times the body reacts to the introduction of antisera. It is called serum sickness.
129
What is the difference in artificial and natural?
natural immunity, which is sometimes called native immunity, is the body's genetic resistance to certain disease-causing pathogens. Artificial immunity occurs when antibodies develop in response to the presence of a specific antigen, as from vaccination or exposure to an infectious disease.
130
Know about Edward Jenner's work
English scientist and is famous for his discovery of smallpox vaccine. This was the first successful vaccine ever to be developed and remains the only effective preventive treatment for the fatal smallpox disease.
131
What is immunotherapy?
the prevention or treatment of disease with substances that stimulate the immune response.
132
What are the different vaccine types?
```
Vaccinia (smallpox)
Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR combined vaccine)
Varicella (chickenpox)
Influenza (nasal spray)
Rotavirus.
Zoster (shingles)
Yellow fever.
```
133
How are each type of vaccines prepared?
Table 15.5
134
What are examples of diseases vaccines are used to prevent?
- disease:Diphtheria, tetanus
- vaccines:decavac, DT (generics)
- disease:Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus
- vaccines: DTap ( Daptacel, infanrix, Tripedia)
- vaccines: Tdap (Boostrix, Adacel)
- disease: diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, haemophilus influenzae b
- vaccines: TriHIBit
- disease:Diptheria, pertussis, tetanus,hepatitis B, polio
- vaccines: Pediarix
- disease: hepatitis A, hepatitis B
- vaccines:Twinrix
- disease: hepatitis B, haemophilus influenzae B
- vaccines: comvax
- disease: measles, mumps, rubella
- vaccines: MMR II
- disease: measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox
- vaccines: ProQuad
135
What is the function of an adjuvant?
- -a special a binding substance added to some vaccines
- any compound that enhances immunogenicity and prolongs antigen retention at the injection site
- precipitates the antigen and holds it in the tissues so that it will be released gradually
- facilitates contact with APCs and lymphocytes
- most common: alum (aluminum hydroxide salts)
BIO 204 Microbiology
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