Objective (positivist) theories
- Goal is to establish cause and effect, generalizable/ universally applicable laws with the goal of improving society
- includes functionalist, learning and control theories
Functionalist theories
Assumptions:
- social structure creates deviance (institutions and roles played within institutions)
- manifest function: intended function of an institution
- latent function: byproduct/unintended function of an institution
→ latent dysfunction: causes problems for society (ex. CJS perpetuates inequalities or prejudices)
Durkheim’s anomie theory (functionalist)
- Believed that a certain level of deviance is functional for society:
→ increases social solidarity (unite to fight back against deviance)
→ helps determine moral boundaries (reminds society of rules and the consequences of breaking them)
→ tests society’s boundaries (what rules need to be changed/replaced)
→ reduces social tensions - beyond this optimal level deviance becomes dysfunctional (undermines social order)
- mechanical solidarity (community with similar values and beliefs) vs organic solidarity (individualism united through interdependence)
- rapid social change creates anomie
Merton’s anomie and strain theories (functionalist)
- Institutionalized goals (society’s culturally identified goals for “success”) and legitimate means (culturally approved ways of obtaining goals)
- anomie results when goals become more important than the means and strain results when there is a structural gap between the goals and the means
- conformity: accept goals and means
- innovation: accept goals and reject means
- ritualism: reject goals and accept means
- retreatism: reject goals and reject means
- rebellion: new goals and new means
Cloward and Ohlin’s differential opportunity theory (functionalist)
- The structure and organization of society results in differential access to legitimate and illegitimate opportunities
- nature of opportunities determines type of deviance
→ criminal gangs (goal is to make money)
→ retreatist gangs (emerges from drug and alcohol use)
→ conflict gangs (use of violence to assume dominance)
Agnew’s general strain theory (functionalist)
- Strain is produced by a variety of processes (removal of positive stimuli, failure to achieve goals) and when accompanied by negative affect (anger, frustration disappointment, depression, fear) deviance can be a result
- deviance is more likely if strain is unjust, severe and unable to be controlled
Cohen’s status frustration theory (functionalist)
- Inequalities found in the structure of society are implemented in the education system which result in delinquent subcultures among lower-class boys
- middle-class measuring rod:
→ standards in which we evaluate ourselves and others; emphasizes middle-class values
→ lower-class boys exposed to middle-class aspirations that they can’t obtain which result in status frustration (similar to strain)
→ mutual conversion: similarly situated boys join together to develop oppositional norms/values they are able to achieve and define status in a way that is attainable
→ reaction formation: expressing intense rejection of middle-class values and embracing opposite values
Limitations of functionalist theories
- Teleological (related to goals) : functionalist theories are able to explain an institution’s purpose but cannot explain why the institution exists
- tautological (circular): ex. family socializes children, the socialization of children is the function of family
- supports the status quo (keeping the system as it is)
- assumes deviance is a lower-class phenomenon
- overemphasizes criminal behaviour (deviance is also non-criminal)
- androcentric bias (male-focused)
Learning theories
Assumption:
- people learn to be deviant (not inherent or because of social structure)
Sutherland’s differential association theory (learning)
- Deviance is learned through differential association (interactions with others)
→ learning occurs in small, intimate groups (direct interaction/communication)
→ techniques and motives for deviance
→ deviance is more likely if deviant messages > conformist messages
→ interactions are influenced by frequency duration, priority (how early in life was it exposed, and intensity (how important a group is to an individual)
Sykes and Matza’s neutralization theory (learning)
- Deviance is learned in group interactions but learned motives are especially important (techniques of neutralization: how people rationalize their behaviour
→ denial of responsibility
→ denial of victim: offender claims victim was in the wrong
→ denial of injury
→ appeal to higher loyalties: law was ignored because more important issues were at stake
→ condemnation of condemners: unfairness felt because of something others have done and not been punished for
Social learning theory (learning)
Likelihood of future actions based on:
→ definitions: person’s attitudes toward a behaviour
→ differential association: interactions with others
→ imitation: engaging in behaviour that others are engaging in
→ differential reinforcement: consequences of behaviour (perceived and experienced)
Limitations of learning theories
- Differential association theory cannot calculate the ratio of deviant or conformist associations someone has
- neutralization theory fails to address context (justification for deviance already committed or about to be comitted)
Control theories
Assumptions:
- focuses on why people don’t become deviant
- deviance is inherently attractive yet most people aren’t deviant
- social control compels people to conform
Hirschi’s social bond theory (control)
Four types of social bonds promote conformity:
→ attachment: friends, family, community
→ commitment: future, career, success, goals (“too much to lose”)
→ belief: internalized norms and values
→ involvement: day-to-day activities
Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory (control)
- Those who lack self-control are more prone to deviance
- proper child-rearing is essential for learning self-control
- levels of self-control remain stable throughout one’s lifetime
Limitations to control theories
- self-control theory assumes crimes are impulsive and self-centered
- social bond theory and self-control theory ignore peer associations
