Ch 5

Question 1

Define empiricism. What was it in other philosophies that the empiricists opposed most?

Answer 1

Empiricism is the view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation. Empiricists opposed rationalism—especially the reliance on innate ideas and knowledge derived through pure reason.

Question 2

Discuss why Hobbes can be referred to as an empiricist, a mechanist, and a materialist. What was Hobbes’s explanation of human motivation?

Answer 2

Hobbes was an empiricist because he believed knowledge originates in sensory experience. He was a mechanist because he explained natural and mental processes as motion governed by mechanical laws. He was a materialist because he believed only matter exists. Human motivation was driven by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, with behavior determined by appetites and aversions.

Question 3

According to Locke, what was the difference between primary and secondary qualities? How did the paradox of the basins demonstrate this difference?

Answer 3

Primary qualities (shape, size, motion, number) exist in objects themselves. Secondary qualities (color, taste, sound, temperature) exist only in perception. The paradox of the basins—where one hand in hot water and the other in cold water then placed in lukewarm water produces different sensations—showed that temperature is subjective and thus a secondary quality.

Question 4

Explain Berkeley’s statement “To be is to be perceived.” Did Berkeley deny the existence of external reality?

Answer 4

Berkeley meant that existence depends on being perceived by a mind; objects have no existence independent of perception. He did not deny external reality but argued it exists as ideas perceived by minds and continuously perceived by God.

Question 5

Summarize Berkeley’s explanation of distance perception.

Answer 5

Distance is not perceived directly but inferred from visual cues such as retinal image size, clarity, shading, and prior experience linking visual sensations with touch and movement.

Question 6

Summarize Hume’s analysis of causation.

Answer 6

Hume argued causation cannot be directly observed; we only observe constant conjunction of events. The idea of necessary connection arises from habit or expectation formed by repeated experiences, not from logical or sensory certainty.

Question 7

What was Hartley’s philosophical goal? In what way might he be considered the first modern psychologist?

Answer 7

Hartley aimed to explain mental life through scientific principles by linking physiological processes with psychological associations. He is considered an early modern psychologist because he proposed a systematic, biologically grounded theory of mental processes.

Question 8

Summarize Hartley’s explanation of association.

Answer 8

Hartley proposed that sensations produce vibrations in nerves and the brain. When experiences occur together, their neural vibrations become linked, so activation of one idea triggers associated ideas.

Question 9

Compare the “mental physics” of James Mill with the “mental chemistry” of his son John Stuart Mill.

Answer 9

James Mill’s mental physics held that complex ideas are mechanical combinations of simple ideas that remain unchanged. John Stuart Mill’s mental chemistry proposed that combinations can produce new properties, meaning complex ideas can differ qualitatively from their components.

Question 10

Why did J. S. Mill believe a science of human nature was possible? What would characterize such a science in its early stages of development? In its later stages? Include in your answer a discussion of primary and secondary laws.

Answer 10

He believed human thoughts and behaviors follow lawful regularities. Early stages would identify simple general laws of behavior. Later stages would develop complex predictive models. Primary laws govern basic mental processes; secondary laws explain complex behavior as combinations of primary laws influenced by circumstances.

Question 11

What was Bain’s goal? In what way might he be considered the first modern psychologist?

Answer 11

Bain aimed to establish psychology as a natural science grounded in physiology and empirical observation. He is considered a founder of modern psychology for integrating biological processes, behavior, and learning principles.

Question 12

Summarize Bain’s contributions to psychology. Include in your answer the new laws of association that he added and his explanation of how spontaneous activity is transformed into voluntary behavior.

Answer 12

Bain added laws of compound association and constructive association. He explained that spontaneous movements become voluntary through trial-and-error learning, where actions followed by pleasure are strengthened and retained.

Question 13

In what ways was Gassendi’s philosophy similar to Hobbes’s?

Answer 13

Both were materialists and mechanists who rejected dualism and explained mental processes in physical terms. Both emphasized sensation as the basis of knowledge and adopted atomistic views of nature.

Question 14

Why did La Mettrie believe that it was inappropriate to separate the mind and body?

Answer 14

La Mettrie argued that mental processes depend entirely on bodily states and physiological activity. Since thoughts change with brain and bodily conditions, mind and body are inseparable aspects of one material system.

Question 15

How did Condillac use the analogy of a sentient statue to explain the origin of human mental processes? Give the examples of how attention, feeling, comparison, and surprise develop.

Answer 15

Condillac imagined a statue gaining senses one at a time. A strong sensation produces attention. Pleasant and unpleasant sensations produce feeling. Experiencing multiple sensations allows comparison. Unexpected sensations create surprise. All mental processes develop from transformed sensory experience.

Question 16

How did Helvétius apply empiricism and sensationalism to education?

Answer 16

Helvétius argued that differences among people result from experience and environment, not innate ability. Education should therefore control sensory experiences and environmental influences to shape intelligence and moral character.

Question 17

What did Comte mean by positivism?

Answer 17

Positivism is the view that valid knowledge comes only from observable facts and scientific methods, rejecting metaphysics and theology as sources of explanation.

Question 18

Describe the stages that Comte believed cultures (and individuals) went through in the way they attempted to explain phenomena.

Answer 18

The theological stage explains events through supernatural agents. The metaphysical stage uses abstract forces or essences. The positive stage relies on scientific observation, experimentation, and laws.

Question 19

Did Comte believe psychology could be a science? Why or why not?

Answer 19

Comte doubted psychology could be a true science because introspection is subjective and cannot produce reliable, observable data. He believed behavior should instead be studied through physiology and sociology.

Question 20

Compare Mach’s version of positivism with Comte’s.

Answer 20

Mach’s positivism emphasized sensory experience as the basis of all knowledge and rejected theoretical entities not directly observable. Compared to Comte, Mach focused more on perception and scientific economy, influencing later logical positivism and psychology.