Sg C7

Question 1

Briefly describe the life and work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Describe his views with respect to (a) feelings versus reason, (b) the noble savage, (c) the general will, and (d) education.

Comment: Rousseau’s educational theories experienced a resurgence in popularity during the 1960s and 1970s, a time when some educators were trying to emphasize students’ personal freedom.

Answer 1

Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher and writer whose works (e.g., The Social Contract, Emile) emphasized natural human goodness and the corrupting influence of society. He influenced political theory, education, and romanticism.

He valued feelings over reason, believed in the “noble savage” (humans are naturally good before society corrupts them), defined the general will as the collective good guiding a just society, and advocated natural education that preserves freedom and development. His ideas resurfaced in the 1960s–70s when educators emphasized personal freedom.

Question 2

Briefly describe the life and work of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832). Describe his philosophy regarding (a) the role of opposite forces in one’s life and (b) phenomenology. Summarize his contributions to the development of psychology.

Answer 2

Goethe was a German writer, scientist, and thinker associated with romanticism, known for works like Faust. He approached life as a dynamic, evolving process emphasizing personal development.

He believed opposing forces (e.g., emotion/reason) must be balanced for growth, and promoted phenomenology—studying experience as it appears without reduction. His contributions to psychology include emphasizing subjective experience, development, and holistic understanding of human nature.

Question 3

Briefly describe the life and work of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Describe his views regarding (a) will to survive, (b) the relationship between intelligence and happiness, (c) the roles of sublimation and denial, and (d) unconscious mind.

Comment: In a field of tough competition, Schopenhauer’s philosophy certainly has to rank high on the list of the most depressing. Independent of the truth of Schopenhauer’s position, the high misery level of this approach provides a considerable barrier to its adoption. In practical terms, people probably look to philosophy and psychology for a brightened outlook of themselves and their life, and this is apparently not to be found in Schopenhauer.

Answer 3

Schopenhauer was a German philosopher known for a pessimistic worldview centered on irrational forces. His major work, The World as Will and Representation, argued that life is driven by a blind striving force.

He saw the will to survive as the primary motive, linked higher intelligence with greater suffering, and suggested relief through sublimation (art) and denial of desires. He anticipated the unconscious mind. His philosophy is notably pessimistic, which limits its appeal despite its influence.

Question 4

Briefly describe the life and work of Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Describe the following aspects of his philosophy: (a) the nature of religious experience, (b) the subjective nature of truth, (c) love in religious experience, and (d) the stages of personal freedom.

Answer 4

Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher considered the father of existentialism, focusing on individual experience, faith, and choice.

He saw religion as a personal, passionate relationship with God, emphasized that truth is subjective and must be lived, viewed love as central to authentic faith, and described stages of freedom: aesthetic, ethical, and religious, culminating in a leap of faith.

Question 5

Briefly describe the life and work of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900). Describe his positions with respect to (a) the Apollonian and Dionysian sides of human nature, (b) psychology, (c) the death of God, (d) opinions versus convictions, (e) will to power, and (f) the concept of supermen. Describe the extent to which misinterpretations of Nietzsche’s concept of supermen have taken place.

Comment: The above comment regarding Schopenhauer suggests that people will avoid adopting a depressing philosophy, but perhaps we have the opposite phenomenon with respect to Nietzsche, because his is an appealing philosophy that was adopted by as repellent a group as the Nazis. Nietzsche’s belief that it is possible to control forces within us and thereby master our fate offers individuals in modern society considerable promise, independent of the validity of this belief (and certainly of the Nazis’ perversion of it).

Answer 5

Nietzsche was a German philosopher who critiqued religion, morality, and traditional values, influencing existentialism and psychology.

He described Apollonian (order) and Dionysian (chaos) forces, emphasized unconscious drives, declared the “death of God” leading to value creation, critiqued rigid convictions, promoted the will to power, and defined the superman as a self-creating individual. His ideas were misinterpreted by the Nazis as supporting racial superiority, contrary to his individualistic intent.

Question 6

Compare and contrast Kierkegaard and Nietzsche’s existential philosophies. Compare and contrast existentialism with romanticism.

Answer 6

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche both emphasized individuality and subjective experience, but Kierkegaard focused on faith and a relationship with God, while Nietzsche rejected religion and emphasized self-created values and power.

Existentialism and romanticism both value subjectivity and individuality, but romanticism emphasizes emotion and nature, whereas existentialism stresses responsibility, choice, and the anxiety of creating meaning in a godless or uncertain world.