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Chapter 1 Flashcards

Psychology and Scientific Thinking (84 cards)

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1
Q

Psychology

A

The scientific study of the mind, brain and behaviour. It’s a discipline that spans multiple levels of analysis.

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2
Q

Social Cultural Influences (social or behavioural level)

A

Involves relating to others and personal relationships.

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3
Q

Psychological (mental or neurological level)

A

Involves thoughts, feelings and emotions.

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4
Q

Biological (molecular or neurochemical)

A

Involves molecules and brain structure.

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5
Q

Scientific investigations are

A

systematic and empirical.

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6
Q

Systematic

A

Plan for objectively collecting information.

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7
Q

Empirical

A

Knowledge is acquired through observation.

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8
Q

All actions of human behaviour are

A

multiply determined.

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9
Q

Individual differences

A

variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality or behaviour.

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10
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

we mutually influence each other’s behaviour.

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11
Q

Be careful with common sense…

A

it can be useful, but also flawed.

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12
Q

Naive Realism (give an example)

A

Belief that we see the world precisely as it is. “Seeing is believing” EX: Happy employees tend to be more productive than unhappy.

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13
Q

Scientific Theory

A

Explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world (Generate hypothesis).

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14
Q

Hypothesis

A

Testable prediction derived from a scientific theory.

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15
Q

Theory

A

Specific explanation for an event. (They cannot be proven corrected).

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16
Q

Scientists are prone to

A

self-deception (sometimes bias towards theories).

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17
Q

Scientific methods are

A

tools for overcoming confirmation bias.

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18
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

The tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them.

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19
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

The tendency to stick to our initial beliefs, even when evidence contradicts them.

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20
Q

Metaphysical Claims (give an example)

A

Assertions about the world that are not testable. EX: Is there an afterlife? Does God exist?

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21
Q

Popular Psychology

A

Internet info, news articles, movies (good but untested)

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22
Q

Pseudoscience (give an example)

A

A set of claims that seem scientific, but isn’t. EX: “New meditation technique cures all depression!”

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23
Q

Exaggerated Claims

A

Overstated or false statements with an overreliance on anecdotes.

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24
Q

Anecdotes (give an example)

A

A personal story used to support a claim. EX: testimonials

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25
Overuse of ad hoc immunizing hypothesis
A way to explain away disconfirming evidence.
26
Lack of self-correction
No method for getting rid of unsupported claims.
27
Why are we drawn to pseudoscience?
We search for order in a complex world and we enjoy to find comfort in our beliefs.
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Personal Benefits
Believing what we want to be true.
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Thinking Clearly
An antidote against pseudoscience.
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Emotional Reasoning Fallacy
Use emotions as guides to evaluate a claim.
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Bandwagon Fallacy
Accept a claim because many people believe it.
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Not me Fallacy
Belief that we are immune from errors in thinking that afflict other people.
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Opportunity Cost
EX: People do not seek scientifically supported treatments for mental health problems.
34
Direct Harm
Pseudoscience treatment makes the problem worse or causes health problems.
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An inability to think scientifically as citizens
Failure to think critically.
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Scientific Skepticism
The approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them as true.
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Skepticism is not
cynicism.
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Principle #1: Ruling out rival hypothesis
Consider alternative explanations for findings; which explanation best describes the findings?
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Experimentation is important
for ruling out alternative explanations. EX: Use control groups & placebos
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Principle #2: Correlation is not causation
Just because two things are associated/correlated doesn't mean one causes the other.
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Correlation research designs
do not permet causal inferences.
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Principle #3: Falsifiability
Applies to claims, hypothesis and theories. It must be possible to dispose a claim.
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The predictions are testable
but could be wrong.
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Principle #4: Replicability
Psychological findings must be reproduced. Findings can occur by chance!
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Replications with variations
change elements of the study when replicating.
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Media reports on original findings
Media tends to report original findings, but failed replications.
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Problems with replication in psyc
Open Science Collaboration
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Principle #5: Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence (give an example)
If a claim goes against what we already know, the evidence for the claim must be strong. EX: Alien abductions
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Principle #6: Occam's Razor (KISS)
Principle of Parsimony. When several explanations account for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is often the best. KISS: Keep It Stupid Simple!
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Goals of Science
Scientists want to describe, explain, predict and control events.
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Variables (give examples)
Any factor or attribute that can assume two or more values. EX: Personality characteristics, mental states
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Description
Identifies and provides an account of some phenomenon of interest, and its characteristics.
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Takes many forms across the sciences (give examples)
EX: Identifying stars, categorizing animals, measuring the prevalence of behaviour.
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Explanation
Scientists seek to understand why phenomenon occur.
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Explanations take the form of
hypothesis and theories.
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Prediction
Use knowledge about events or variables to predict an outcome of interest.
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Control
To exert influence over research settings, procedures, and over the application of scientific knowledge.
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Two contexts of control
1. Research Activities: variables participants, experimental setting. 2. Application of scientific knowledge: EX treatments for depression, workplace settings, soda tax.
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Psychology's Past and Present
Inquiry into psychological questions has been going on for thousands of years.
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Plato
"Wax tablet" analogy for memory.
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Aristotle
Associations between ideas.
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Descartes
Dualism - the mind as distinct from matter
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Scientific Psychology
Psycho physical measurements. In 1879: Wundt develops the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
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Introspection
Participants carefully reflect and report on their inner sensations and experiences.
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Theoretical Frameworks of Psychology
Broad, theoretical perspectives that guide how people think about psychological phenomenon.
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Structuralism (founded by who?)
School of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements of the psychological experience. Founded by Edward Titchener.
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Structuralism positives + negatives
Positives: Positive: structuralism attempted systematic observation Negatives: Disagreement among introspectionists, imageless thought.
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Functionalism (founded by who?)
Focused on the functions and adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics, such as thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. Asked "why" instead of "what". Founded by William James.
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Behaviourism (founded by who?)
The scientific study of observable behaviour that focused on discovering general laws of learning. Founded by John Watson.
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Key behaviourist
B.F. Skinner
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Anti-mentalistic (positives + negatives)
The mind is a black box. Positives: clarified learnings principles, brought a focus onto observable and verifiable subject matter. Negatives: went too far bu suggesting that everything is learned
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Cognitivism/Cognitive Psychology
Understanding thinking is central to understanding behaviour (response to behaviourist ideas).
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Some Area of cognition
Perception, attention, memory, language and reasoning.
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Cognitive neuroscience
Examines relation between brain functioning and thinking.
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Psychoanalysis (founded by)
Focuses on internal psychological processes of which we are unanware. Unconscious memories and drives cause behaviour. Founded by Sigmund Freud.
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Psychoanalysis positives + negatives
Positives: Focus on unconscious drivers of behaviour. Negatives: Freud's "unconscious" processes are not the same as scientifically demonstrated non-conscious determinants of behaviour. Many unscientific claims - not testable.
77
The Great Debates of Psychology - Nature vs. Nurture
Are our behaviours attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or to our rearing environments (nurture)?
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Early thinkers and behaviourists often thought that the environment/experience (give an example)
shaped thinking and behaviour. EX: John Locke - blank paper
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Current State of the debate
Both genes and environment play a role in most behaviours More nuanced approach → relative contributions of each
80
Evolutionary Psychology
Psychological traits are adaptive - they help us survive and pass on our genes Problem: Many explanations are not falsifiable
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Free Will vs. Determinism
Free will seems self-evident Some argue that free will is an illusion • Many environmental factors influence us without our knowledge • Behaviour is generated automatically
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Basic Research
Examines the fundamental nature of phenomena • Contributes to a core body of knowledge
83
Applied Research
Helps to solve or evaluate a specific real-world problem
84
Examples of psychological research in our lives
Yellow fire engines, hands-free technology in vehicles, police lineups, and placement of foods
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