PSYC 101 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

Research Methods (90 cards)

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1
Q

Why We Need Research Designs

A

Avoid biases when evaluating information

Attempt to see the world as it really is (including the psychological world)

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2
Q

Example: Facilitated Communication

A

Premise: children with autism are just as intelligent as other children; they have severe motor problems that prevent communication

Facilitator steadies them as they approach intended letter keys on a computer keyboard
Investigators put it to the test
• “Communications” came from the facilitator

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3
Q

Research Designs

A

Observational Research (Naturalistic observation)

Case Studies

Surveys

Correlational Design

Experiments

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4
Q

Conceptual Definitions

A

How do we specify our phenomenon or construct of interest?
• E.g., happiness; driving performance

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5
Q

Operational Definition:

A

A working definition of what a researcher is measuring

Defining a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or manipulate it

Convert an abstract, hypothetical, or non-observable construct into things that can be measured

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6
Q

EX: Driving Performance

A

Lane departures & following distance

Crashes

Response time

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7
Q

Observational Research:

A

Different types of non-experimental studies in which behaviour is systematically watched and recorded.

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8
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation.

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9
Q

Participant observation (give an example)

A

The observer becomes a part of the group or social setting being studied.
• E.g., ethnography

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10
Q

Structured observation

A

Researchers configure the setting in which behaviour will be observed.

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11
Q

Naturalistic Observation (recorded how?)

A

Watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation.

Video camera

Audio recorder

Notes

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12
Q

EX: Naturalistic Behaviour

A

Observing animal behaviour

Parents behaviour at minor hockey games

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13
Q

Advantages (Ecological Validity + External validity)

A

Ecological Validity: the extent to which the research findings apply in the real world

• The research setting is the real world

External validity: The extent to which findings apply to other contexts besides the research setting

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14
Q

Disadvantages: (Lack internal validity + Reactivity)

A

Lack internal validity: the ability to draw cause-and-effect inferences

Reactivity: when the process of observing behaviour causes that behaviour to change
Investigate

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15
Q

Case Study

A

An in-depth analysis of an individual, social unit, event, or some other phenomenon

  • A comprehensive examination of a single case
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16
Q

Many techniques can be used to collect data

A

• Explore the richness and depth of a particular case

• Case studies are narratives

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17
Q

EX of Case Study

A

H.M.: Amnesia

Night nurses

Bizarre phenomena: zoophilic exhibitionism

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18
Q

Advantages (Case Study)

A

• Existence Proofs

• In-depth exploration

• Flexibility of data collection techniques

• Provide supporting or disconfirming evidence
Provide insights or “leads” for researchers to further investigate

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19
Q

Disadvantages (Case Study)

A

• Cannot systematically test hypotheses

• Observer bias

• Cannot draw causal inferences
Problems with generalizability

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20
Q

Survey

A

Uses questionnaires to gather information about people.

• Self-report measures

• Examine traits, beliefs, opinions, and feelings

Can be descriptive or can be used to test hypothesis

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21
Q

Examples (Survey)

A

• Personality Traits

• Beliefs about distracted driving

• Depression

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22
Q

Population

A

refers to all the cases or observations of interest to us

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23
Q

Sample

A

A subset of cases or observations from the population.

• Representative Sample: Reflects the important characteristics of the population

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24
Q

Random Selection

A

A procedure that ensures that every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate.

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25
(Evaluating our Measures) Reliability
• The consistency of a measurement (tool) • Consistency when consistency is expected • Measures can be reliable but inaccurate
26
Test-retest
Administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under equivalent conditions.
27
Interrater Reliability
The extent to which independent raters or observers agree in their assessments.
28
Types of Reliability for assessment of measures
Test-retest Interrater Reliability
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Test-retest
Administer the same measure to the same participants on two or more occasions, under equivalent conditions.
30
Interrater Reliability
The extent to which independent raters or observers agree in their assessments.
31
Validity
The extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure. E.g., Does our measure of shyness actually measure shyness or does it measure a different psychological construct?
32
Reliability and validity are different concepts. Reliability is
necessary for validity.
33
The wording of questions is important when
conducting or interpreting survey research.
34
Leading Questions
Items are presented in an unbalanced way that can overtly or subtly suggest that one viewpoint or response is preferable to another.
35
Loaded questions
Items that contain emotionally charged words that suggest one viewpoint or response is preferable to another, or they contain assumptions with which the option to disagree is not provided.
36
Double-barreled questions
Items that ask about two issues within one question, forcing respondents to combine potentially different opinions into one judgment.
37
Double negatives
Items whose phrasing contains two negative words.
38
Advantages of Self-Report Measures
Convenient Often work well Appropriate: many questions need to be asked directly
39
Disadvantages of Self-Report Measures
Lack of personal insight Self-report measures assume honesty in responses
40
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency to respond in a way that a person feels is socially appropriate rather than as the person truly feels.
41
Correlation (give 3 examples)
A research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated A statistical association between variables Scores are associated in a non-random fashion Examples: Positive psychological wellbeing is associated with better cardiovascular health Positive correlation between walking speed and life expectancy Per capita cheese consumption is associated with deaths by becoming tangled in bed sheets
42
Watch out for misleading terms:
• Associated; Related; Linked
43
Key Concept
Variables are measured, not manipulated
44
Positive Correlation
Higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with higher scores or levels of another variable • As X increases, Y increases; As X decreases, Y decreases
45
Negative Correlation
Higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with lower scores or levels of another variable • As X increases, Y decreases; As X decreases, Y increases
46
No (Zero) Correlation
No association between variables.
47
Pearson's r:
• A statistic that measures the direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables
48
Values range from -1.00 to +1.00 + = ? - = ? -.51 is a stronger relationship than ? A value of +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a
+ = positive correlation - = negative correlation -.51 is a stronger relationship than +.29 perfect correlation
49
Scatterplot
A graph that portrays the intersection of data on two variables for a single individual
50
Illusory Correlation: The perception of a statistical association between ___________ when none exists E.g., (give example!) • Superstition may stem from Illusory Correlation
two variables Association between the full moon and strange occurrences Illusory Correlation
51
Why do we perceive illusory correlations?
- Salience of events (We don't tend to detect or remember "non-events") - Confirmation bias
52
Correlation vs. Causation Correlation does not equal ________ • We know A & B are ________ • There are three explanations: • A causes B • B causes A OR. a third variable - C - causes both A and B
causation related • A causes B (bi-directionality problem) • B causes A OR. a third variable - C - causes both A and B (third variable problem)
53
Correlations allow us to make ______ (Give an example!)
Predictions E.g. Predict university success based on highschool grades (Prediction is not perfect, a usual relationships are not necessary - just associations)
54
Experiments allow us to make __________________ (if done correctly) • Experimenters manipulate ________ • Other designs only _________ variables What makes a study an experiment? (Give two reasons)
causal inferences variables measure 1. Random Assignment of participants to conditions 2. Manipulation of an independent variable
55
Experiment:
• The researcher manipulates one or more variables, attempts to control extraneous factors, and then measures how the manipulated variables affect participants' responses • Participants are randomly assigned to groups
56
Independent Variable:
The variable manipulated by the researcher - the presumed cause in the cause and effect relationship
57
Dependent Variable:
the response that is measured, to determine whether the independent variable has produced an effect • The presumed effect in the cause and effect relationship
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Random Assignment
• The participants in the experiment are randomly sorted into groups • Random assignment is different than random selection
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Experimental Group
• The group of participants that receives the manipulation
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Control Group
• The group of participants that does not receive the manipulation
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Between-Participants Design: A.K.A. Between-Subjects • Researchers assign people to _____________. Each participant takes part in only ________________ of the experiment • Randomly assigned to different groups (random assignment) (Give an example!)
Different groups one condition E.g. Texting and Driving
62
Within-Participant Design: • A.K.A. Within-Subjects • Each participant acts as their own __________ • Each participant engages in every condition of the experiment • Randomly assigned order of conditions (counterbalancing) (Give an example!)
control E.g. Texting and Driving
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Placebo Effect Blinded experiments
Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement participants are unaware if they are in the experimental group or the control group
64
Nocebo Effect (Give an example!)
Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm E.g., some pharmaceutical side effects
65
Experimenter Expectancy Effects: Researchers hypotheses lead them to _____________ bias the outcome of a study Double Blind experiments: When neither the __________ nor the _____________ are aware of who is in the experimental or control group
unintentionally researchers participants
66
Demand Characteristics: Cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate _________ regarding the researchers' ____________. • Can affect responses • Counteract with "cover stories" and distractor tasks
guesses hypotheses
67
Naturalistic Observation: • What kind of validity? • Cannot draw ________ inferences
• High external validity causal
68
Case Studies: • What kind of validity? • Provide _______, especially for unique cases • Cannot draw _________________
No external validity depth causal inferences
69
Surveys & Correlational Designs: • What kind of validity? • Provide ___________ & and ___________; breadth • Cannot draw _____________
Good external validity description, prediction causal inferences
70
Experimental Designs: • What kind of validity? • Can draw
causal inferences
71
Ethics Ethics are particularly important for _______________ (and other social scientists) • Psychologists study sentient beings: _________ & __________ • Importance of Research Ethics: • Progress in psychology depends on willing __________ • Ethics can impact ___________ • Deception in research
Represent a system of moral principles and standards. psychologists humans & animals participants methodology
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Tuskegee Syphilis Study • Which years? • Recruited ___ financially poor black men • 2/3 had advanced syphilis - were ____________ or treated.
• 1932 - 1972 (USA) 600 not informed
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Problems with the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Give 3)
1. Important information was withheld 2. Coerced to participate 3. Direct harm; low benefit
74
Research Ethics Board (REB): • An independent ______________ that evaluates whether proposed research projects with human participants complies with the TCPS-2 principles and guidelines. Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS-2) • Mandate: "To promote research that is conducted according to the highest ethical standards."
institutional committee
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Core Principles: • Respect for Persons: Concern for Welfare: • Justice:
Respect autonomy & protect those with developing, impaired, or diminished autonomy Quality of life; physical and mental health Fair and equitable treatment
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Informed Consent • Informing research participants of what is __________ in a study before asking them to __________ • The principle that people have the right to make a ___________, informed decision about whether to participate in a ______
involved participate voluntary study
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Deception: • Researchers intentionally ________ information from (passive) or intentionally mislead (active) participants about the ______ of the study
withhold nature
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Deception may be permitted if: (Give 4 reasons)
1. Study cannot be conducted without deception 2.Does not harm participants 3. Does not involve a medical or therapeutic intervention 4. The study is likely to yield significant positive benefits
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Animal Research • Is the knowledge gained worth the suffering? • Animals give us important "_________" to learn from Some research may not ___________
“models” generalize
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Descriptive Statistics: E.g., Measured satisfaction with life for a sample of 100 people What is the average level life satisfaction in this sample? What is the average level of life satisfaction for men versus women? What is the average satisfaction with life in different income brackets? How much do the participants vary in their life satisfaction?
Numerical characterizations that describe data
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Debriefing:
• A conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional information about the study.
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Central Tendency • Measure of the "__________" or "_________" scores in a data set • Example: Age in a university class: 18, 20, 22, 22, 23
typical central
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Mean: • Advantage: includes all __________ information in dataset • Disadvantage: heavily influenced by _________ (e.g., add "63" to above dataset)
The average of the dataset numerical outliers
84
Median:
The middle score in a data set
85
Mode:
The more frequently occurring score in the database
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Variability (dispersion): • Measures of how scores _______ • How ________ or _________ bunched the scores are
vary loosely or tightly
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Range: (Give an example) • E.g., 18, 20, 22, 22, 23; Mean: 21,
Difference between the highest and lowest scores Range: 5 years
88
Standard Deviation:
measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean
89
Inferential Statistics:
Mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population
90
Statistical Significance: • Unlikely to be due to _______ alone • Conventional threshold is 5/100 or p < 0.05 Statistical Significance does not equal __________ significance • Large samples can lead to statistically significant results
chance practical
PSYC 101
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