1
Q
problems
A
- occurs when there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state (Ducker, 1945)
- problems are challenging since the solution is not immediately obvious
2
Q
gestalt approach to problem solving
A
the likelihood of solving a problem is influenced by how the problem is represented in the mind
3
Q
restructuring
A
- changing how the problem is represented
- a key mechanism of problem solving
4
Q
insight
A
is the sudden realization of a problems solution
5
Q
insight problem
A
problem is solved suddenly
6
Q
non insight problem
A
problem is solved gradually
7
Q
analytically based problems
A
problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience
8
Q
functional fixedness
A
- continue to think of an object in its intended purpose/way inhibits the person’s ability to use the object for a different function
- e.g. dunkers candle problem & maiers two-string problem
9
Q
Dunckers candle problem
A
- place three candles at eye level on the door. You have candles, box of matches, tacks
- difficult to solve because it involves using the match box as something other than a box that holds matches
- matchbox is meant to be emptied and used as a shelf on the wall for the candles
10
Q
Maiers two-string problem
A
- a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time
- participants needed to tie the pliers to one of the strings to create a pendulum, which could then be swung to within the person’s reach
11
Q
mental set
A
- a predetermined idea about how to approach a problem based on one’s experience
- mental set can be an obstacle to problem solving
- e.g. luchins water jug problem
12
Q
information-processing approach
A
- Newell and Simon proposes that problem solving involves moving through a problem space which consists of:
1. initial state
2. intermediate state
3. goal state - also consists of operators and means-end analysis
13
Q
initial state
A
conditions at the start of a problem
14
Q
intermediate state
A
conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal state
15
Q
goal state
A
solution to the problem
16
Q
operators
A
actions governed by rules that move the problem from one state to another
17
Q
means-end analysis
A
- a problem solving strategy of eliminating differences between the initial state and goal state via subgoals
- the goal in applying the means-end analysis to the Tower of Hanoi Problem is to reduce the size of the difference between initial and goal states
18
Q
subgoals
A
intermediate states that get you closer to the goal
19
Q
think-aloud protocol
A
procedure in which one verbalizes what they are thinking as they are solving a problem
20
Q
mutilated checkerboard problem
A
a problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution
21
Q
tower of hanoi - Shallice et al., 1982
A
- a problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another
- illustrates the means-end analysis
- initial state: three discs stacked on the left peg
- goal state: three discs stacked on the right peg
- operators: moving the disk to another peg
22
Q
analogy
A
making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things
23
Q
analogical problem solving
A
the use of analogies as an aid to solving problems
24
Q
analogical problem-solving steps
A
- analogical encoding in which two problems are compared for similarities
- if a relation is noticed, one must map the corresponding parts of the target and source problem
- generate a solution that parallels the solution used for the source problem
25
analogical transfer
- transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem
- target problem: the problem the participant is trying to solve
- source problem: another problem that shares some similarities with the target
26
dunckers radiation problem
- involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body
- used to study the role of analogy in problem solving
27
analogical encoding
the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
28
the trade-off strategy
a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”
29
contingency strategy
- a negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens
- e.g. an author wants 18 percent royalties, but the publisher wants to pay only 12 percent. The contingent solution would be to tie royalties to sales: “You can have 18 percent if sales are high, but less if sales are low.”
30
analogical paradox
people often fail to see the relationship between analogous/similar problems in the lab however, people often use analogies in real-world settings
31
in-vivo problem solving
observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations
32
experts vs. novices
- experts are faster and more successful at problem solving than novices because of:
1. greater knowledge
2. the way they organize information
3. more time spent analyzing the problem before attempting to solve
33
characteristics of creativity
- divergent thinking: thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions
- novel ideas
- useful ideas
34
4 stage process of creativity
1. problem generation
2. problem formulation
3. problem-solving
4. solution implementation
35
creativity - S.M. Smither, Ward and Schumacher (1993)
- procedure:
1. asked to draw a creature that might live on another planet
2. one group was not given any examples of creatures
3. one group given pictures of possible creatures as examples
- results: those who were given examples drew creatures that were similar to the examples
36
creative cognition
a technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively
37
creative cognition - fine (1990)
- given the parts
- not informed of the category
- asked to create object
- these are preinventive forms
- precede the creation of a finished product
- provided with a category and asked to Interpret their object
- results: highly creative ideas
38
creativity in the brain
- deactivation of the left anterior temporal lobe (ATL) facilitated thinking outside the box
- EEG recordings reveal increased activity in the frontal lobe before an insight solution
- EEG recordings reveal increased activity in the occipital lobe before a noninsight solution
39
compound remote-associate problem
a problem in which three words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each of these words forms a new word or a phrase
40
incubation
- getting ideas after taking some time away from working on a problem
- when the Default Mode Network (DMN) is highly active, the Executive Control Network (ECN) is not active
- exception of this is Ellamil et al., (2012)
41
Ellamil et al., (2012)
- Default Mode Network (DMN) and the executive control network (ECN) are both highly active when evaluating ideas
- DMN and ECN were functionally connected during both the generation and evaluation stages of the creative process
42
volitional daydreaming
- the act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes
- daydreaming can increase creativity
43
Stephen hall ted talk
- using creativity to solve problems
1. define the constraints of the problem
2. need to provoke ideas
3. give absurd ideas respect
4. need to be optimistically objective
5. celebrate great ideas regardless of who had them
Cognitive Psychology
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