1
Q
retrieval
A
bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
2
Q
encoding
A
the process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM
3
Q
transfer-appropriate processing
A
- when the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval
- aka “tap”
4
Q
morris et al. (1977) retrieval and encoding
A
- when the processes and encoding are retrieved and appropriate for completing the current task participants show better performance
- in the study processes engaged earlier when completing a rhyming task would be appropriate for performing a rhyming test
- these retrieved processes should help facilitate ones performance
5
Q
maintenance rehearsal
A
- rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
- involves little or no encoding and therefore poor memory
6
Q
elaborative rehearsal
A
- rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
- e.g. trying to remember a phone number. The first 3 digits may be the same as yours, and the last 4 may the year your mother was born
- results in better memory
7
Q
levels of processing
A
- the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded, with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
8
Q
shallow processing
A
- processing that involves repetition with little attention to meaning
- shallow processing is usually associated with maintenance rehearsal
9
Q
deep processing
A
- processing that involves attention to meaning and relating an item to something else
- deep processing is usually associated with elaborative rehearsal
- deep processing results in better memory
10
Q
levels of processing (craik and tulving)
A
- proposed that the extent of processing an item (depth of processing) will determine its likelihood of being remembered
- participants were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words
- 3 categories:
1. Determining if a word was lower or capital case = shallow processing
2. rhyming = deeper processing
3. fitting into a sentence = deepest processing - words that you had to make a judgment to whether it fit a sentence frame had better recall because you had to process those words at a deep semantic level
- deep encoding = better recall
11
Q
paired-associate learning
A
a learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word
12
Q
visual images (bower nad winzenz (1970)
A
- tested whether using visual imagery can enhance memory
- visualizing an image of paired associates results in better recall than rote rehearsal (silent repetition)
13
Q
self-reference effect (leshikar)
A
memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self
14
Q
generation effect (slameka and graf)
A
memory for material is better when a person generates the material themselves, rather than passively receiving it
15
Q
organizing information
A
- results from multiple research experiments show that participants spontaneously organize items as they recall them
- organized Information in LTM helps to facilitate recall
- one reason for this result is that remembering words in a particular category may serve as a retrieval cue
16
Q
retrieval cue
A
- is a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
- e.g. location, hearing a song, smell
17
Q
testing effect
A
Karpick and Roediger (2008) found that routine testing results in better performance
18
Q
memory as an evolutionary process (nairne 2010)
A
- proposed that we can understand how memory works by considering its function
- through the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive
- concluded that “survival processing” is a powerful tool for encoding items into memory
19
Q
effective studying (6)
A
- elaboration
- generate and test
- organize
- take breaks
- avoid “illusions of learning”
- be an “active” note-taker
20
Q
elaboration
A
- thinking about what you are reading and giving it meaning by relating it to other things that you know
- it is a process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long-term memory
21
Q
generate and test
A
- taking an active role in creating material is a powerful way to achieve strong encoding and good long-term retrieval
- repeatedly testing yourself on material you are studying results in improved memory
22
Q
organize
A
the goal of organizing material is to create a framework that helps relate some information to other information to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding
23
Q
take breaks
A
- research also shows that memory performance is enhanced when sleep follows learning
- e.g. spacing effect
24
Q
spacing effect
A
the advantage in performance caused by short study sessions separated by breaks from studying
25
avoid "illusions of learning"
- specific study techniques favored by students may appear to be more effective than they actually are
- e.g. rereading as a study technique is that it can create the illusion that learning is occurring when in reality is results in fluency
- e.g. highlighting seems like elaborative processing but it often becomes an automatic behaviour with little deep thinking about material
26
be an "active" note-taker
- computer note taking can result in shallower processing of the material, and therefore poorer performance on exams
- long-hand note taking is superior to laptop note taking
27
free recall
- a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to recall stimuli that were previously presented
- stimuli could be words previously presented by the experimenter or events experienced earlier in the participant’s life
- this can be used in many experiments such as serial position curve experiments
28
cued recall
- a procedure for testing memory in which a participant is presented with cues to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli
- cues are typically words or phrases
- better performance than free recall
29
encoding specificity
- we encode information and its context
- successful retrieval is dependent on how much the conditions at encoding matches conditions at retrieval.
- e.g. encoding many experiences at your grandparents house, when returning to their house contect is reinstated and those experiences are remembered
30
golden and baddely "diving experiment"
- one group of participants wore diving gear and studied a list of words underwater
- the other group studied the words on land
- these groups were then divided so that half the participants in each group were tested for land recall and underwater recall
- results shown that the best recall occurred when encoding and trivial occurred in the same location
31
state-dependent learning
matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval
32
consolidation
- the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption
- making memories resistant to disruption
33
2 types of consolidation
1. synaptic consolidation
2. systems consolidation
- looking at these forms of consolidation it is accurate to think of them as occurring together but at different speeds and at different levels of the nervous system
34
synaptic consolidation
- a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes
- results in long-term potentiation (LTP)
- works rapidly at the level of the synapse
35
systems consolidation
- neural circuits involving the hippocampus and cortex are reorganized over long timescale, lasting weeks, months, or even years
- works slowly at the level of neural circuits
36
long-term potentiation (LTP)
- enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation at the synapse
- strengthening of synaptic transmission is an outcome of structural changes to the synapse as a result of LTP
- e.g. the first time that neuron A is stimulated, neuron B fires slowly, but after repeated stimulation, neuron B fires much more rapidly to the same stimulus
37
synaptic consolidation according to donald hebb
- proposed that synaptic changes reflect learning and memory
- experiences change synaptic structure, neural firing rate, and amount of neurotransmitter that is released.
38
the standard model of consolidation
- proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
- participation of the hippocampus is crucial during early stages of memory, as it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this information to the cortex
39
reactivation
- occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory
- during reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex
- apart of the standard model
40
retrograde amnesia
- loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion
- can extend back minutes, hours or even years depending on the nature of the injury
- a part of the standard model
41
graded amnesia
- when amnesia is most severe for events that occurred prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events - this is a characteristics of retrograde amnesia
- suggests that these memories had more time for cortical connections to strengthen making the memory trace more resistant to disruption
42
multiple trace model of consolidation
- the idea that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of remote memories, especially episodic memories
- this contrasts with the standard model of memory, which proposes that the hippocampus is involved only in the retrieval of recent memories
43
gilboa et al. (2004)
- elicited recent and remote episodic memories by showing participants photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to the distant past
- the results of this experiment showed that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote episodic memories
- remote memories more strongly associated with prefrontal cortex than recent memories
44
multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA)
a procedure for determining the pattern of voxel activation that is elicited by specific stimuli, within various structures
45
consolidation and sleep
- recent research supports the idea that although the reactivation process associated with consolidation may begin as soon as a memory is formed, it is particularly strong during sleep
- through research it is found that the reason is that going to sleep eliminates environmental stimuli that might interfere with consolidation
46
wilhelm et al. (2011) experiment
- expectation to recall information enhanced memory
- practice finding matching pairs of cards
- expected condition: told they would be tested on this task
- unexpected condition: told they would be tested on another task
- memories that we consider important are strengthened by consolidation
47
reconsolidation
- the idea that when a memory is retrieved (remembered), it becomes fragile, like when it was originally formed, and that when it is in this fragile state, it needs to be consolidated again
- when the memory has become fragile again, and before it has been reconsolidated, it can be modified or eliminated
48
practical outcomes of reconsolidation
reactivation of a memory followed by reconsolidation can help alleviate the symptoms of PTSD
49
semantic memory
facts and general knowledge
50
episodic memory
events, experiences and personal details
51
gais sleep consolidation
- propose that sleep enhances consolidation
- paired-associates (English-German words)
- sleep condition: slept within 3 hours of studying
- awake condition: stayed awake 10 hours after studying
- sleep enhances consolidation OR, those in the sleep condition experienced less interference
Cognitive Psychology
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Decks in class (13)
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