Chapter 12

Question 1

Piaget formal operation phase

Answer 1

• Spans 7-11 years old

* Children start using mental operations to solve problems

Question 2

What are the characteristics of mental operations in the formal operational phase?

Answer 2

• These mental operations are strategies and rules that make thinking more systematic and powerful
• Some apply to numbers (addition, multiplication, division, subtraction)
• Some apply to the categorisation of objects (mother + father = parents)
• Some are special – if A is near point B and C then B and C must be near to one another
• They give concrete operational thinking a rule-based logic that is missing in preoperational thought
• If applies correctly, they give consistent results (2+2=4 anytime)
• They can be reversed, for Piaget, the ability to reverse the operations was an important part of cognitive maturity

Question 3

What happens to egocentricism in the formal operational phase?

Answer 3

• They are no longer egocentric; they do not do centration and they do not confuse appearances with reality
• Egocentricism wanes with exposure to friends and their other perspectives (LeMare,& Ribin, 1987)
• Learning that events can be interpreted in other ways shows children that problems have other aspects that must be considered and that appearances can be deceiving

Question 4

Is there a type of child who is likely to stay egocentric?

Answer 4

• Aggressive kids remain more egocentric, intellectually gifted kids are less

Question 5

Is there a limit to concrete operational thought?

Answer 5

• Concrete Operational is limited in that it is only concerned with the here and now in practical ways – no abstract thought and no hypothetical thought

Question 6

What is the information processing account of middle childhood?

Answer 6

Information Processing account of Middle Childhood
• Children’s memory increases rapidly in middle childhood because of two factors; strategies for remembering and children’s growing factual knowledge of the world – can organise info better and hence, remember more

Question 7

What is a memory strategy

Answer 7

• Memory strategies are activities that improve remembering

Question 8

How do memory strategies develop in children?

Answer 8

• Children use memory strategies early; preschool children look or touch objects they have been told to remember – not effective but show that they understand they should be trying to do something to enhance memory, it is not automatic
• 7-8 year olds use rehearsal – repeatedly naming information that must be learned
• As they go through middle childhood, they get better at picking strategies
• Kids also learn to organize information better: e.g. when learning main points, not details, rehearsal sucks but making a summary and notes works

Question 9

Can you improve children’s memories?

experiment

Answer 9

It is possible to teach them these earlier. Ackerman (1996) tested recall in 7 & 11 years old, tested recall with three-word triplets that were relates (e.g. pig-horse-cow) and taught them to retrieve the 3 word in the triplet. 11 year olds out performed 7 year olds but both improved – kids can improve memory with strategies young

Question 10

Do children always pick the best memory strategy and how does this change with age?

Answer 10

• Children (younger ones) sometimes pick the wrong strategy i.e. they try to use rehearsal to remember a gist when summary notes would be better (Lovette & Pillow, 1996)

Question 11

What is monitoring?

Answer 11

• After children choose a memory strategy, they need to monitor it to check it Is working
• Through monitoring, they learn to accurately ID what info they have not learned and can focus on that material (Kail, 1990)

Question 12

What is the sequence for all monitoring?

Answer 12

• There is a sequence for all monitoring

1. Determine the goal
2. Select a strategy
3. Use the strategy
4. Monitor the strategy

Question 13

How does growing (or specialist knowledge) impact memory?

Experiment

Answer 13

• Michelene Chi (1978) asked 10-year olds and adults to remember a sequence of numbers and a sequence of positions/locations
• Adults were better at numbers, kids at positions
• Why? Kids were chess players and the positions were recognizable configurations on a chessboard
• Kids had specialised knowledge that allowed them to organise and remember better
• When people have expert knowledge of a topic, they are better at recalling it in an organised manner

Question 14

How does growing (or specialist knowledge) impact memory?

Answer 14

• Learning new material is harder than learning material that fits into an already organized system
• The knowledge that allows a child to organize things increases with age (Schneider & Bjorklund, 1998)

Question 15

What are the two ways of depicting knowledge?

Answer 15

• Can be depicted as a network (like a mind map) or as a script a memory structure used to describe the sequence in which events occur
• Younger children would have a network with fewer entries and links and hence organising cannot be done as extensively
• This makes learning new things harder as they cannot be integrated into a network

Question 16

The 3 features of a memory network (using the example of a 10 year old’s knowledge of animals)

Answer 16

1 - membership to categories (a dog is a type of an animal)

2 - Properties (a dog CAN bark, HAS 4 legs, CAN be walked etc)

3 - Scripts (when walking a dog you must A use a lead B carry a poop bag etc)

Question 17

Information processing elements that aid memory

four things

Answer 17

Strategies - eg rehearsal

Monitoring - is it working, what do I not know?

Knowledge - Understanding the relations between things promotes memory by organizing things to be remembered

Scripts - Memory structures that allow people to remember events that occur in a specified order

Question 18

Does knowledge always help memory?

Answer 18

• BUT knowledge can also distort memory; if something does not conform to kids’ knowledge it is more likely to be forgotten
• Stories including a helicopter pilot are likely to be remembered as men pilots because the child’s network says helicopter pilots are men (Levy & Boston, 1994)
• Same with scripts
If you cannot remember a day you might think you typically do X so I did X
But this can be a false memory
Eg, if tom typically cleans his room and his mum says did he (and he does not fully remember) he may use his knowledge of scripts to say yes , even if he did not

Question 19

What is the psychometric theory of intelligence?

Who came up with g

Answer 19

• A psychometric theory is based on the measurement of a psychological characteristic via a screable questionnaire or something else
• Charles Spearman reported finding evidence that general intelligence factor (g)is responsible for performance on all mental tasks (1904)

Mechanical, logical, arithmetical and spatial - if you are good at one, you will be good at the others as g is behind all of this

Question 20

Thurstone & Thurstone’s 7 types

Answer 20

Other researchers disagree and say it is all about distinct abilities
• Thurstone & Thurstone found evidence for g underlying but also for seven distinct patterns; perceptual speed, word comprehension, word fluency, space, number, memory and induction

Question 21

Carrol and intelligence

Answer 21

• John Carroll (1993) proposed a hierarchal model with g at the top, 8 categories underneath and the skills each of these 8 give in the third

Question 22

Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligences outline

Answer 22

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Not based on test scores
• Developed from research on child development, studies of brain injuries and studies of exceptionally talented people
Proposes 8 domains

Question 23

8 domains of Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Answer 23

1. Linguistic – Knowing meaning of words – using words to understand new ideas – using language to convey meanings to others
2. Logical-mathematical – Understanding relations that can exist amongst objects, actions and ides as well as the operations math or logic that can be performed on them
3. Spatial – perceiving objects
4. Musical – Comprehending and producing tones varying in pitch, rhythm and emotional tone
5. Bodily – Kinesthetic – Using ones body in differentiated ways
6. Interpersonal – Identifying feelings, moods, motivations and intentions in others
7. Intrapersonal – Understanding one’s own emotions and weaknesses/strengths
8. Naturalistic – Being able to make distinctions between aspects of the natural world

• The first three are included in the psychometric approach, the last are not
• According to Gardner an artist, dancer or tradesman is showing intelligence just as much as a math dude
• Naturalistic is the ability to make distinctions between aspects of the natural world (eg types off trees)

Question 24

The developmental history and localisation of the 8 intelligences (Gardner)

Savants

Answer 24

• Each of these has a unique developmental history – linguistic develops first
• Each is also regulated by distinct areas of the brain
• Each is associated with a different type of exceptional person e.g. savants – individuals who are cognitively delayed but show gifts in one area (like music)

Question 25

Whats is Social-cognitive flexibility

Answer 25

• Social-cognitive flexibility is a person’s skill in solving social problems with relevant social knowledge

Question 26

Social-cognitive flexibility experiment, results and interpretation (and how this lends itself to Gardner's theory)

Answer 26

* Social-cognitive flexibility is a person’s skill in solving social problems with relevant social knowledge * Jones & Day (1997) studied this by presenting different social scenarios to adolescents and asking them to interpret is. Some were much better at understanding that each scenario could have many interpretations and that any person’s interpretation of this event would affect how they responded to it. * Adolescents who were better at this aspect were not better at linguistic or mathematics; byt they did have better social abilities – being good at social situations is an element of intelligence

Question 27

If Gardner's theory is correct, what implications does this have for schooling?

Answer 27

• This theory has implications for schooling as if possible, teachers should capitalize on the capacities of each person

Question 28

Other possible intelligences according to Gardner | there are 5

Answer 28

Existential, humor, cooking, sexual and digital

Question 29

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence overview

Answer 29

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence * Sternberg thought intelligence referred to a person’s ability to get what they want from life in a persons socio-cultural environment or context * There are 3 sub theories:

Question 30

Sternberg subtheory: Componential

Answer 30

Componential – Intelligence depends on basic cognitive processes called components. These could be like monitoring or a memory strategy. Components must be selected and organised in the right sequence to complete the task successfully. Intelligence in this subtheory means more efficient organization and use of components Can be related to Analytic intelligence: mental steps or components used solve problems

Question 31

Sternberg subtheory: Experiential

Answer 31

Experiential subtheory – Intelligence is revealed in novel and familiar tasks. For novel tasks, intelligence is the ability to apply exiting knowledge to a new situation. For familiar tasks, intelligence is associated with automatic processing, using as few mental resources as possible Relates to Creative Intelligence: Use of experience in ways that foster insight

Question 32

Sternberg subtheory: Contextual

Answer 32

Contextual Subtheory – Intelligence involves skillfully adapting to the environment. Intelligence is always partly defined by the demands of an environment and cultural context. What is intelligent in Africa might be stupid in NYC. Relates to Practical Intelligence: Ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life

Question 33

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Summary

Answer 33

• Sternberg defines intelligence in terms of processes: the strategies people use to complete tasks (componential), the familiarity of those tasks (experiential) and the relevance of the tasks to personal and cultural goals (contextual).

Question 34

What did Sternberg think about comparing the intelligence test scores of different cultures?

Answer 34

* Sternberg underscored the dangers of comparing test scores of different cultures * Usually invalid because test items are not equally relevant in each culture

Question 35

Is there evidence for Sternberg like intelligence?

Answer 35

• There is evidence to suggest that intelligence derives from interrelated parts of the brain, perhaps without needing a higher ordered g factor Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin & Owen (2012)

Question 36

History of the IQ test

Answer 36

History of Intelligence Testing • Binet was asked by the French government to make a test to find out if children needed more support • Made a list of things that on average, kids could do at a certain age • This is mental age; the difficulty level of problems that kids can solve at various ages • A child with a greater mental age would have the MA of an older child • Using this formula, Binet and Simon showed that kids with higher MA did better at school • Lewis Terman of Stanford revised this and created the Stanford-Binet test • Gives the intelligence quotient (IQ)

Question 37

IQ

Answer 37

``` intelligence quotient (IQ) • IQ=MA/CAx100 • If mental age equals chronological age you get an IQ of 100 • IQ scores are no longer done like this but by comparing their results to other children of their age – above average = above 100 ```

Question 38

How do we evaluate IQ tests? What are the correlations? What does this suggest?

Answer 38

Evaluating Intelligence Tests • It is hard to compare this test against another known method to assess its validity as there is no known alternative • Often this means it is compared against performance in schools/grades/teachers reports • Correlations between g and these typically fall between 0.4 and 0.6 • This suggests that school performance is not entirely due to g, there are other factors

Question 39

What is dynamic testing, what theory underpins it, what can it be used for?

Answer 39

* Dynamic testing tries to get around the issues with evaluating IQ tests by measuring the child’s learning potential by having the child learn something new with the examiner’s help. Based on the ZPD. * Static and dynamic testing appear to provide useful and independent information

Question 40

What can you combine an IQ test and dynamic testing to see?

Answer 40

• If you want to know a child’s future ability, it is good to know what they can do now (static) and how good they are at acquiring skills (dynamic) (Day, Englehardt, Maxwell & Bolig, 1997)

Question 41

What are differentiates instruction and response to intervention and how are they used in a modern educational setting?

Answer 41

• Now in classrooms they can use differentiated instruction: making adaptations to the classroom environment and teaching to accommodate children’s abilities and preferred ways of learning and response to intervention which is using evidence-based monitoring and responses to students measured achievement levels and then changing the style if there is a problem

Question 42

What is the hereditary evidence for IQ

Answer 42

Hereditary & Environmental Factors * Evidence for hereditary factors comes from identical twin studies * Hereditary influences also influence the development of intelligence, if one identical twin shows an improvement at a certain age the other will to; not true for fraternal twins

Question 43

What is the hereditary evidence for IQ | Study

Answer 43

* Based on adoption studies, the impact of heredity increases with age: kids IQ was compared with their biological parents and adopted parents. At all ages, the correlation between kids and biological parents IQs was stronger than that of adopted parents IQ, there was no correlation between kids and adopted parents IQ * This correlation got stronger as the kids aged

Question 44

What is HOME and how does it highlight environmental factors for IQ?

Answer 44

* Caldwell * Bradley developed the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) for assessing parent’s behaviour and quality of child’s home environment * HOME shows kids who score high usually have parents who are stimulating responsive and involved * Head Start programs also offer evidence for environmental factors; when kids participate in these enrichment programs, their scores go up and school achievement improves especially when these programs are extended into middle school (Reynolds & Temple, 1998)

Question 45

Race and IQ (In the USA like always)

Answer 45

* Intelligence scores showing an average difference of 15 IQ points between black and white Americans are controversial * Kids of lower social classes have typically lower scores * The black/white scores, when controlled for social class are more similar but there is still a difference

Question 46

Culture and IQ tests (why do blacks score lower than whites in the USA)

Answer 46

* Some critics argue that the scores themselves are biased and reflect cultural heritages of their creators (white Americans) * Culture fair tests use items familiar to all cultures like raven’s matrices * They do not eliminate group differences in test scores * Maybe because the test itself is cultural (Anastasia, 1988)

Question 47

Race differences and SES

Answer 47

Asian Canadians have the highest IQs Then Europeans, then hispanic and then black These differences re reduced (but not eliminated) when accounting for SES

Question 48

Stereotype threat

Answer 48

Might be pulling down minorities scores Also - Kids who are afraid of authority or are usually marginalized may do worse because they do not like being tested by strangers

Question 49

Gender differences in IQ Verbal/Spatial Factors that could account for this

Answer 49

* Girls have better verbal ability * Hyde and Linn (1988) found women are better at verbal stuff than boys – and they read and write better * And boys have more issues with reading and verbal stuttering (Halpern, 1986) * Might have a biological root; the left hemisphere matures faster in girls (Diamond, Johnson, Young & Singh, 1983) * Experience also contributes – reading is typed as a job for women (Huston, 1983) * Boys are better at Spatial ability like mental rotation. * Though boys are better than girls at this usually, not in low SES environments

Question 50

Gender and Math Ability

Answer 50

* Mathematics * Complex; tests emphasise computational skills in middle school and girls do better. Problem-solving and applying concepts are emphasised at high school and boys do better (Beller & Gafni, 1996) * Grades are NOT AFFECTED; either there is no difference or girls do better * Why do girls do worse in test of math achievement but get better or the same grades? * Perhaps stereotyping is at work; girls do worse because they have less confidence because math is a “boys” job * Despite efforts at reducing stereotype, differences in math performance remain constant * Could be because the stereotypes persist * Could also have biological roots, perhaps spatial ability plays a role; boys may be more successful at some parts of math because they have the special ability that allows them to visualise the problems and do it better * Could well be a part of both