1
Q
How is self-esteem measured?
A
How is Self-Esteem measured?
• Preschool children is have their self-esteem measured by the picture method
• Older children use questionnaires
• An example is the Self-Esteem- Perception Profile (SPPC)
• Five domains (Harter, 1988)
2
Q
What are the elements of the SPCC
A
Self-Esteem- Perception Profile (SPPC)
- Scholastic competence: How competent/smart does the kid think they are at school
- Athletic competence: How competent the child feels at sports and games requiring physical activity
- Social acceptance: How popular or accepted the child feels with peers
- Behavioural conduct: How adequate the child feels about behaving the way they are supposed to
- Physical appearance: How good-looking the child feels and how much the child likes their physical characteristics like highest, weight, face and hair
• The answers of the six questions in each section are averaged to create a score for the aspect of self-esteem. All the data are used to create a self-perception profile for each child
3
Q
When is Self-Esteem Highiest?
A
Preschool years
4
Q
When does self esteem start to drop and why?
A
- A drop in self esteem in elementary school is common because children compare themselves with their peers
- Unlike at home with loving parents, children are subject to realistic feedback
- Might not be the best etc.
- These realisations cause a modest drop in SE in the area they affect (e.g. running = athletic competence)
5
Q
IS self-esteem in middle childhood general or specific and how?
A
- During middle-childhood, SE becomes more differentiated; they evaluate themselves in more domains and also, these domains become more independent
- Young kids SE is across all dimensions, older kid differ across domains
6
Q
Academic aspects of self-esteem in middle childhood
A
- Children’s academic concept becomes really well defined (Byrne & Gavin, 1996)
- As they experience success and failure at school, they learn about their academic ability in different subjects and all contribute to an overall level of Academic Competence
- A child who thinks they are good at reading and math but not in science will have overall positive SE but one who thinks they are bad in all, wont
7
Q
How do we obtain a global score for SE?
A
• • The answers of the six questions in each section are averaged to create a score for the aspect of self-esteem. All the data are used to create a self-perception profile for each child
If there are aspects that the child believes they are good in and these outnumber the bad there will be an overall positive SE. If not, there may be a negative one
8
Q
How many kids have negative SE (Evidence)
A
• Cole (1991) Found that 25% of surveyed 9 & 10 year olds had negative self esteem in 3 scales of the SPCC
9
Q
How can parenting style influence child SE positively?
3 things
A
- Children are more likely to view themselves positively when their parents are affectionate towards and involved with them (Lord, Eccles & McCarthy, 1994)
- This, over time, is like the parent saying “you matter to me” which the kid internalises
- High SE kids have parents who are not afraid to set rules and are open to discussing them with their kids (Coopersmith, 1967)
10
Q
How can parenting style influence child SE negatively?
2 things
A
- Parents who don’t set rules are saying they don’t care
* Parents who refuse to discuss rules are saying “your opinions don’t matter to me”
11
Q
Praise and self-esteem
A
- Praise can help but MUST be genuine
- If you lie to a kid “you’re clever” then later they struggle with a problem, this can make it worse than no praise
- Praise is good is it is well-times, genuine and does not link appreciation to a child’s achievements (Brummelman, Crocker & Bushman, 2016)
12
Q
How do classmates influence SE
A
- Social comparisons are also important (Butler, 1992)
- They compare with peers
- Kids learn very quickly where they rank academically
13
Q
What are the 2 types of children with respect to SE?
How are they different?
What is the norm for kids, SE and peers?
A
- Idiocentric people emphasize independence and personal needs and goals over those of others
- Allocentric people emphasize interdependence and cooperation more than personal goals
- Only allocentric kids SE could be predicted by the level of social support they experienced from their best friends – not true for idiocentric kids (Dayan, Doyle & Markiewicz, 2000)
- BUT most kids SE is high when others view them positively and low when negatively (so dependent on others) Interesting thoughts on gifted class – used to being the best, now average, SE drops (Hoge et al., 1990)
14
Q
What are the known consequences of low SE for kids?
(4 things)
Is this relationship causal and if so in what direction?
Id there something some kids could benefit from?
A
• Low SE kids are at risk for:
1. Problems with peers
2. Psychological disorders like depression
3. More likely to be involved in antisocial behavior
4. Do poorly at school
• Does not mean it caused the outcome, sometimes the outcome caused low SE
• Bad at school, low SE, try less, worse at school etc.
• Some kids could benefit from a psychological intervention
15
Q
How and why does peer interaction change in middle childhood?
As children can get on better with others, what changes?
A
- Kids in middle childhood get along better cos they have the required cognitive and social skills to manage the conflicts that arise
- As children move beyond the preschool years, they realise that others have different perspectives
- Also, they can see each themselves as other children do
- Maltreatment and abuse can interfere with this process, making it harder to take another person’s perspective (Buracl et al., 2006)
- Because kids in middle childhood are better and getting on with others, they tend to spend more time with peers away from adult supervision
16
Q
What do kids do together?
A
• Zurbatany, Hartmann & Rankin found kids spend time with peers mostly hanging out and talking
17
Q
What is Rough-and-Tumble play, when doe sit start and how does it differ by gender?
A
- Rough-and-tumble play begins; physical play – chasing, pushing etc. but for fun
- This type of play is still a game and when interrupted by adults, kids say there is no problem (Pellegrini & Smith, 1998)
- Girls do less than buys and theirs tends to involve chasing, boys wrestle also
18
Q
What are the 3 purposes of prosocial activities with peers
A
• Prosocial activities with peers have 3 purposes (Zarbatany, Hartmann & Rankin, 1990)
- The activities provide a prosocial context to support children’s development of relationships and provide a sense of belonging
- Provide a focus on achievements well as the integrity of the child’s self
- Offer opportunities for learning and instruction
• Not all peer activities provide tall of these which is why it is valuable that they are involved in several
19
Q
Is all peer activity helpful?
A
• Peer activities can also allow negative interpersonal interactions (Ellis, Zarbatany, Chen, Kinal & Boyoko, 2018)
Negative laughter directed to another individual
Could be negative interpersonal actions of coersion
If peer group does it, kid might
20
Q
What is friendship and a best friend?
A
- Friendship is a voluntary relationship based on two people who like each other
- By kindergarten, kids have a best friend which is a child they play with and is nice to them
21
Q
How is a typical friend similar?
A
- At this point, friends are like them in age, gender and race (Hartup, 1992)
- Though ethnic segregation begins at this age (Hamm, 2000)
- Friendships are more common with friends from the same age and ethnic group
22
Q
In what way might the typical pattern of friendship ethnicity differ and why?
Are their special difficulties immigrants must overcome with respect to friendship?
A
- Mixed friendships are more common when the school has small class sizes
- When classes are larger, kids choose from the larger pool of same race peers
- Interracial friendships are usually confined to school, unless the neighborhood is integrated (DuBois & Hirsch, 1990)
- Immigrants must overcome social and linguistic barriers to make friends, in north America, increasing English is associated with increased chances for youth to broaden their social networks
23
Q
Besides ethnicity, class size and age, are their other factors which determine whom middle children might be friends with?
Do people become more or less similar to their friends with time?
A
- Also, friendships are based on other things: attitudes towards school, recreation and the future
- As time passes, friends become more similar in their values and attitudes
24
Q
How does gender influence friendships in middle childhood?
What happens if a kid has both gender friends?
And if only opposite sex friends?
A
- Overwhelmingly, friendships are same sex but not always
- Boys and girls are equally likely to have opposite sex friends
- Kids who have both same & opposite sex friends are sociable and well adjusted
- Those who only have opposite sex friends are unpopular, less competent academically and socially
- This could be because they were rejected by peers and then took opposite sex parents as their last resort (Kovacsm Parker & Hoffman, 1996)
25
How doe friendships end (3 things)?
* Sometimes friendships in middle childhood are brief because thee kids have the ability to make friends but not sustain them (e.g. cannot keep secrets or too bossy)
* Sometimes friendships end because there is conflict
* Or because their interests turn out not to be similar
26
Quality of online friends in middle childhood
• Children in middle childhood also make online friendships and they are as good as real ones
27
Consequences of good relationships with friends (2 things)
```
Relationships that stay are valuable; children with Good friends have higher SE,
Less likely to be lonely
More often prosocial
Less likley to be victimized by peers
These kids cope with stress better
Greater self-worth as young adults
```
28
What are the 5 possibilities for middle children with respect to popularity at school
There are 5 categories in children with respect to popularity (Marks, 2017)
1. Popular children are liked by many classmates
2. Rejected children are disliked by many classmates
3. Controversial children are both liked and disliked by classmates
4. Average children are liked and disliked by some children but without the intensity as the previous 3
5. Neglected children are ignored by classmates
29
What are the charecteristics that often define popular children? (5)
* Better looking and smarter kids are often popular
* But social skills play a role too, pop kids are more skilled at initiating contact and communicating and integrating themselves into an ongoing conversation or play session
* Also seem skilled in assessing their impact
* These popular children are also skilled at assessing their impact on situations and tailor their responses to to new social situations
* Also, more likely to cooperate and share, take turns and not interrupted
30
Are rejected children socially skilled? How do these children behave?
* Unlike popular children rejected children are socially unskilled
* Many rejected children are aggressive and attack peers without provocation
* When conflicts arise, rejected kids often ger angry and retaliate
31
What are the consequences of rejection for children?
| 4 things
Repeated peer rejection in childhood can have long term consequences. Rejected young people are more likely than others to :
Do poorly &drop pout pf school,
Have lower SE
Increased behavioral problems
Commit crimes and suffer from psychopathy
32
How can parental modelling cause rejection?
* Can start with parental influence (Ladd, 1998)
* They model their parents in social situations and act this out later
* If parents are friendly with others they learn to be, if not, they do not
* In particular, if parents respond to conflict with intimidation or aggression, their kids imitate them, hampering the child’s development and making them less popular over time
* Peer rejection is especially bad as children value this a lot
33
How can parental discipline affect rejection?
* Discipline also influences this: Parents who discipline inconsistently (punished one day, not the next for the same thing) is associated with kids being aggressive and antisocial, paving the way for rejection
* Consistent, loving discipline promotes social skills and, in the process, popularity
34
Is there things we could teach young people and their parents to lessen the chance of rejection?
• If we could teach young people and their parents’ better ways to act socially, the children might be less rejected, more popular and have higher SE with all the benefits this comes with
35
Is there a study that looks at longer term results of popularity in middle childhood?
• Morison & Masten (1991) studied self esteem and popularity in grades 3 to 6, then 7 years later. Kids who were popular and had high self esteem were popular and had high self esteem later and were doing well at school. The opposite was true of those with low self esteem and popularity
36
What is prejudice?
• Is a negative view of others based on their membership in a specific group
37
How does prejudice vary from preschoolers to middle childhood?
What cognitive bises contribute?
Where might they learn to dislike other people?
* Kindergarten kids attribute positive traits (like friendly and smart) to their own group and negative traits (like being mean and fighting a lot) to other groups
* During elementary school, prejudice declines somewhat
* Pre-schoolers usually view people in social groups are more homogenous than they are and not as good as people from the child’s own group
* Older children understand that people in groups are heterogeneous
* They have also learned that people from one group may be similar to people from theirs
* As children realise that groups consist of all types of people, prejudice decreases
* But it does not vanish – older kids are still biased towards their own and away from other groups
* Many adults have these biases and children may learn them from the adults
38
Is there a way to lessen prejudice?
* One way to lessen prejudice is to encourage friendly and constructive contact between kids from different groups (Ramsey, 1995)
* The desegregation of schools in America is aimed at doing this
39
What is the 1989 convention of the rights of a child
(4 principles)
Does this specify how it is to achieve these principles?
How does this work in Canada?
• The 1989 Convention on the Rights of a Child addresses the rights across civil, economic, cultural, political and social areas. 4 Principles
1. Non-discrimination
2. The best interests of a child
3. Respect for the child’s views
4. The right to life, survival and development
* It does not specify how those rights should be achieved
* In Canada, child advocacy groups exist in many provinces
* Their main aim is to create a legislative body to oversee children’s rights issues with respect to children who receive care or resources from the provinces
40
Segregation in the USA
In 1950, black ppl segregated in schools in the USA
In the fall of 1950, the NAACP in Topeka Kansas decided to test the constitutionality of the law
13 black parents including Oliver Brown decided to enroll their kids in a white only school and were turned away
Brown vs. board of education
Segregated schools are Unconstitutional
41
What are prosocial behaviors and why might they happen?
What is altruism?
Is there a change in prosocial behavior as children age?
* Actions that promote harmony in a social group are called prosocial behaviours
* Co-operation often works because individuals often get more as a group than apart
* Altruism is when one person helps another for no benefit
* Usually, prosocial behaviour and helping strategies’ improve with age
42
What two skills underlie prosocial behavior?
* There are two skills which help prosocial behaviour
* Empathy – the ability to understand another’s emotions.
* Parents who model positive, well regulated emotional expression have kids who have higher empathy (Eisenberg et al., 2003)
* Perspective taking – by elementary school, kids know others have different views and they are able to see themselves as others do. In general, the better they do this, the more prosocial they are
43
What four factors influence the likelihood of Altruism?
* If children feel personally responsible to the person in need, they are more likely to help that person (Costin & Jones, 1992)
* They might also act altruistically if they feel they have the skills needed to help the person in need (Peterson, 1983) and are feeling happy and successful (Moore, Underwood & Rosenhan, 1973)
* The opposite of these factors is true; if he knows little so is not capable or is feeling bad, he is less likely to help
* They are also likely ot be altruistic if it does not cost them much
* How a child is raised also has an effect. Religious children are more altruistic if they are told the person needing help is a poor or needy child (Sabato & Kogut, 2018)
44
What socializing can parents do that influences Prosocial Behavior?
(3 Things)
Does helicopter parenting work? Why?
What is dispositional change and how can it affect altruism in children?
* Parents who’s choice of discipline is reasoning tend to have kids who behave prosocially (Fitzgerald & White, 2003)
* Repeated exposure to reasoning during discipline and the focus on the plight of the victim sees us promote children’s ability to take the perspective of others (Fitzgerald Y White, 2003)
* Parents who experience frequent warm feelings to others also have more prosocial kids because they model this
* However, helicopter parenting – parental overcontrol of kids such that it interferes within their ability to develop an internalized self-control – result in less empathetic, prosocial kids
* For children to develop empathy they must be exposed to developmentally appropriate risk. If the parents’ helicopter in and fix everything, they wont.
* One way to develop this is dispositional praise. Link the child’s altruistic behavior to an underlying altruistic characteristic. When kids hear this a lot they learn it is valuable and try to do it
* When they believe they are nice and prosocial, they start to act like it
45
Assertiveness vs Agression
Assertiveness is goal directed behavior that respects the rights of others, Aggression is externalized behavior meant to harm others
46
When does aggression begin?
• Preschool kids use aggression to resolve their conflicts, it emerges in the preschool years (Rubin, 2003)
47
What are the two types of aggression?
• In instrumental aggression kid is aggressive to achieve a goal but reactive aggression is when one person’s behavior leads to another child’s aggression
48
What do we know that is different about bullies from non bullies?
* Marini (2006) found that bullies feel that aggressive bullying behaviours were legitimate means to act towards others while non bullies did not
* Their parents are also less aware off their behaviour around others than the parents of non bullies
* Bullying and aggression are usually physically expressed in younger children
49
What is relational aggression?
• A common form of verbal aggression is relational aggression in which (typically girls) hurt another person by undermining their social relationships
50
How do boys experience aggression and conflict in middle childhood?
• Physical aggression still happens in middle childhood – boys from grades 4 and 7 said nearly half their conflicts with other boys involved physical aggression Cairnes
51
Is there a type of child who gets more aggression directed at them?
• Misna (2003) found that kids with learning disabilities have, more risk of being bullied
52
Describe the stability or lack thereof of aggression?
Can anyone predict the outcomes for aggressive kids?
* Thorough the expression changes, aggression is a relatively stable trait; Kupersmidt & Cole (1990) measured aggressiveness an a group of 11 year olds by having kids list the most aggressive class members – 7 years later half of these had criminal records, less than 10% for others
* Teacher’s rating of aggression of kids accurately predict subsequent criminal activity (Stattin & Magnusson, 1989)
53
What characteristics are known about aggressive kids?
• Husemann, Eron & Dubow (2002) found that aggressive kids tended to be low in popularity and intelligence and experience higher levels of parental rejection and punishment. They were less likely to express guilt.
54
Long term aggression
* As adults, children who had parents with low level education, higher marital problems and low church attendance were at higher levels for arrest
* The only thing that was shown to reduce the risk of arrest in adulthood for those with a history of early aggression was having parents who attended church often (Huesmann)
55
Aummary of aggression
Aggression is not a phase, there is a small number of kids who are highly aggressive and grow into aggressive adults
56
Punishment and agression
* Aggression in Families
* Patterson (1984) did the first studies on this
* Found that force used against aggressive kids works in that they stop being aggressive temporarily but also teaches then that force can make people do what you want them to
* Hence harsh physical punishment is associated with aggression
* Dodge, Bates & Pettit (1990) studied badly punished kids and they were rated 2x as aggressive by teachers and peers than kids who had not received this punishment
* It is not needed to be aggressive to tech kids to be aggressive; if parents are more coercive, unresponsive and emotionally uninvested their kids are more aggressive as well (Rubin et al., 1998)
57
Aggression cycles in families and the consequences of labeling of a child as aggressive
* In families with aggressive kids, you can get a cycle, both parents and kids are likely to respond to neutral behaviour with aggression and once its begun, likely to escalate it
* Once a kid is labelled aggressive by parents, they are more likely to be singled out for punishment even when they are not being bad (Patterson, 1984)
58
Genetics and aggression
• Adoption and twin studies show there is a genetic link to aggression
59
Can a sibling relationship be protective for aggression?
* Aggressive kids with good sibling relationships are less aggressive
* These relationships provide an opportunity for practicing socializing
60
Parental responsibility and aggression
• What is important is that parents are the responsible adult and hence is their responsibility to deal with this, even if the kid is aggressive.
61
The consequences of abuse
* Children who experience abuse have many developmental challenges
* The abuse can cause long term physical, emotional, social and cognitive impairments
* The emotional effects of abuse can cause kids to have worse interpersonal relationships – they tend to be too withdrawn or too aggressive
* Emotional regulation is hard for children who have experienced abuse; they often live in constrant anxiety
* This also affects them at school where they do much worse
* They are often disruptive at school (Goodman et al., 1998)
62
Maltreatment, abuse and attachment
* Maltreatment threatens attachment, especially between 6 &12 months of age (Peaqrce & Pezzot-Pearce, 2005)
* These infants bcome to know the world as dangerous
* Insecure attachment is another risk factor for problems with regulations of emotions and poor stable relationships
* These kids have both internalizing (suicidal thoughts, depression and anxiety – especially iof the abused child feels guilty about the abuse) and external (aggression, sexualised behaviour)
* No single set of features identifies abused kids, some maltreated kids show much more resilience than others and show little problems at all
63
Supportive parents and abuse
• Supportive parents who protect their kids and believe their stories of abuse fair better than those who blame the kids
64
Aggression and TV
Modelling experiment (Famous)
Desensitization
Results of exposure to lots of violent TV
* By he time people are 3, they usually watch TV\By the time people are 15 they have spent more time with TV than school
* Overuse has been linked with behavioural, health and learning problems (Sanders)
* This has also been linked with increased literacy and academic performance (Sanders)North American kids watch violent adventure shows; heroes always end up in fights with villains and are rewarded with praise and admiration(Walters, 1999)
* As the bobodoll experiment showed, when kids watch violent tv (Bbobo doll was on TV) they may model it (Bandura,1986)
* Outside of this lab setting, tv still contributes to the development of real world violence *Bushman, Gollwitzer & Cruz, 2015)
* Research has said that viewing of TV violence desensitized people to it
* Babysitters who are exposed to this let kids fight it out as they consider this normal (Drabman & Thomas, 1976)
* Huesmann (1986) found that 8-year-old boys who watched the most tv violence had the biggest criminal histories at 30
* Frequent exposure to TV makes all kids more aggressive, girls display more relational violence and boys more physical (Ostrov, Gentile & Crick, 2006) – that’s all kids, not just those prone to aggression (Huesmann)
65
What is the worst possible scenario for a child who watches violent TV?
• The worst combo is a child who watches lots of violent TV, identifies with aggressive charecters and perceives the violence as realistic: theis prediucts violence into adulthood – especially if the violent character is rewarded (a murderer who is imprisoned is better than dirty harry who is rewarded).
66
Does the effect of violent TV change as the child gets older?
Is there something that might help children deal with violent TV?
* Effect on TV gets less pronounced with age(Brown)
| * Encouraging children to think critically about what they are watching might help (Funk, 2005)
67
Cognitive processes and aggression
Cognitive Processes
Perceptual and cognitive processes also play a role in aggression
• Aggressive boys often respond aggressively because they are not skilled at interpreting other people’s attentions and without a clear understanding, react aggressively (Dodge, Bates & Pettit, 1990)
68
What are the 6 steps of the information processing model of child reaction?
• Crick & Dodge (1994) formulated the information processing model
1. Kids attend to certain features of social stimulus and not others
2. Kids try to interpret the features they have processed: give meaning to social stimulus
3. Children evaluate their goas for the situation
4. Kids retrieve, from memory a behavioural response that is associated with the interpretation and goals of the situation
5. Children evaluate that response to determine if it is appropriate
6. Finally, they proceed with their behaviour
69
How can aggression impact the information processing model?
Is there a history of events the child has experienced which might contribute to this?
* Investigators have shown that aggressive kids processing is biased at several of these steps and that this flawed information processing is associated with increased aggression (Crick & Werner, 1998)
* Aggressive kids are less likely to attend to signals that signal nonhostile motives (Crick & Dodge, 1994)
* So assumes aggressive act was performed
* Also, based on histories of rejection from peers, many aggressive kids believe that unfamiliar peers are uncaring and unfriendly (Burks)
70
Is there any training that can help aggressive children with their information processing?
• Aggressive kids who are not skilled at interpreting these signals might benefit from training to improve behavior and social interactions (Dodge & Crick, 1990)
PSYC 304
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