1
Q
Correlate
A
A factor that co-varies or is associated with some outcome of interest
2
Q
Risk factor
A
- factor or characteristic associated w increased risk of developing condition Y
- if X is shown to occur before Y, X is a risk factor for Y
3
Q
Variable risk factor
A
- risk factor that can change within a person (eg variance in level of depression)
- In a situation where X preceeds Y, if X can be changed, it is a variable risk factor
4
Q
Fixed marker
A
- In a situation where X preceeds Y, X is a fixed marker of Y if X cannot be changed
- eg history of abuse during childhood, race
5
Q
Variable marker
A
- variable risk factor that, when changed, doesn’t influence outcome of interest
- if changing X does not lead to a change in Y
6
Q
Causal risk factor
A
- variable risk factor that, when changed, changes likelihood of outcome of interest
- if changing X leads to a change in Y
7
Q
Necessary cause
A
- characteristic (X) that MUST exist for a disorder (Y) to occur
- most mental disorders do not have necessary causes
- ex: to develop general paresis (Y) one must have previously had syphilis (X)
8
Q
Sufficient cause
A
- a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder
- one theory hypothesizes that hopelessness (X) is a sufficient cause for depression (Y): if you are hopeless enough you will become depressed
9
Q
Contributory causes
A
- increase probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur
- if X occurs, probability of Y occurring increases
10
Q
Distal risk factors (or distal causal factors)
A
- causal factors occurring early in life that may not show effects for many years
- may contribute to predisposition to develop a disorder
11
Q
Proximal risk factors
A
- factors that operate shortly before occurrence of symptoms of a disorder
- may be a condition that proves too much for someone and triggers the onset of a disorder
- may involve biological changes like damage to parts of left hemisphere that can lead to depression
12
Q
Reinforcing contributory cause
A
- condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring
- eg extra attention/sympathy for ill person can unintentionally discourage recovery
13
Q
Causal patterns
A
- when more than one causal factor is involved (eg A, B and C lead to Y)
14
Q
Diathesis-Stress Models
A
- view of abnormal behaviour as result of a major stressor being experienced by someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder
- diathesis = predisposition toward developing a disorder (biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors)
15
Q
Additive model
A
- diathesis and stress add up to lead to disorder (someone w high level of diathesis might only need a small amount of stress to develop a disorder)
16
Q
Interactive model
A
- some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
- effect between one variable (stress) and another (disorder) varies at different levels of the third variable (diathesis)
- see textbook 3.1.3 for graphs to help understand
17
Q
Protective factors
A
- decrease likelihood of negative outcomes for those at risk
- not the same as absence of risk factor
- successfully dealing with a stressor (usually moderate and not mild or extreme) can turn it into a protective factor
- ex having a warm and supportive parent
18
Q
Resilience
A
- ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances
19
Q
Biopsychosocial viewpoint
A
- biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment
20
Q
4 categories of biological factors particularly relevant to development of maladaptive behaviour
A
- Genetic vulnerabilities
- Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
- Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system
- temperament
21
Q
Genes
A
- long molecules of DNA
- we have one copy of each gene from each parent
- each gene exists in 2 or more alternate forms called alleles
- genes determine broad temperamental features in newborns
- most mental disorders show at least some genetic influence
22
Q
Chromosomes
A
- chain-like structures within cell nucleus that contain genes
- each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes
23
Q
Down syndrome
A
- intellectual disability
- trisomy (3 chromosomes instead of 2) in chromosome 21
24
Q
Polygenic
A
- mental disorder influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes
25
Polymorphism
- naturally occurring variations of genes
26
Genotype
- a person's total genetic endowment
27
Phenotype
- observed structural and functional characteristics of a person that result from interaction between genotype and environment
28
Genotype-environment correlation
- genotypic vulnerability that can shape a child's environmental experiences
- eg aggressive child is rejected so finds aggressive friends, becomes teenage delinquent
29
Passive effect of genotype on environment
- resulting from genetic similarity of parents and children
- eg smart parents provide more stimulating environment for child, creating environment that interacts in positive way with child's genetic endowment for high intelligence
30
Evocative effect of genotype on environment
- child's genotype evokes particular kinds of reactions from social and physical env.
- ex active and happy babies draw out more positive responses from others
31
Active effect of genotype on environment
- child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial ("niche building")
- ex extraverted children seek company of others, enhances social tendencies
32
Family history (or pedigree) method
- method used in field of behavior genetics
- examines incidence of disorder in relatives of an index case to determine whether incidence increases in proportion to the degree of the hereditary relationship
- limitation: ppl closely related more likely to share similar environment, hard to separate genetics and environment
33
Twin method
- method in field of behavior genetics
- compare concordance rate between identical and nonidentical twins
- concordance rates of disorders in identical twins is not 100% so no disorder is completely heritable
- evidence not conclusive bc identical twins might be treated more similarly
34
Adoption method
- method in field of behavior genetics
- comparison of biological and adoptive relatives with and without a given disorder to assess genetic vs environmental influences
35
Linkage analysis
- genetic research strategy in which occurence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome
- eg tracing eye color and schizophrenia
- difficulty in replicating these results
36
Association studies
- genetic research strategy comparing frequency of certain genetic markers known to be located on particular chromosomes in people with and without a particular disorder
37
Developmental systems approach
- genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment
- these influences are bidirectional
38
Causes of neurotransmitter imbalances
- excessive production and release of neurotransmitter
- neurotransmitters are deactivated when released into the synapse
- problems with receptors in postsynaptic neuron (too sensitive or insensitive)
- ex antidepressants Prozac and Zoloft slow reuptake of serotonin
39
5 kinds of neurotransmitters most studied in relationship to psychopathology
- norepinephrine (monoamine; emergency reactions, attention, orientation)
- dopamine (monoamine; pleasure and cognitive processing; implicated in schizophrenia)
- serotonin (monoamine; mood; role in anxiety and depression and suicide)
- glutamate (implicated in schizophrenia)
- gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) (reducing anxiety and other high-arousal states)
40
Hormones and endocrine system
- chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands
- endocrine glands release hormones into bloodstream
- CNS linked to endocrine system by effects of hypothalamus on pituitary gland (master gland of body, produces a variety of hormones that control other glands)
41
Temperament
- child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation
- basis in biology
- basis from which personality develops
- remains moderately stable but can change
42
5 dimensions of temperament present at 2-3 months
- fearfulness; irritability/frustration; positive affect; activity level; attentional persistence/effortful control
- related to neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness/agreeableness
43
Gender differences in temperament
- no differences for neuroticism
- boys show slightly higher levels of activity and intense pleasure
- girls have greater control of impulses and ability to regulate attention
44
Behaviorally inhibited children
- are fearful and hypervigilant in novel/unfamiliar situations
- significant heritable component
- when stable is risk factor for dev. of anxiety disorders later in childhood and probably in adulthood
45
Behaviorally uninhibited children
- show little fear of anything
- may have difficulty learning moral standards for behavior from parents or society
- more likely to exhibit aggressive/delinquent behavior at age 13
46
3 influential psychological perspectives
- psychodynamic
- behavioral
- cognitive-behavioral
- all emphasize importance of early experience and social factors
47
Psychodynamic perspective
- psychological perspective
- Freud's psychoanalytic theory (first)
- later Ego Psychology (Anna Freud), Object-Relations Theory, Interpersonal Perspective (Alfred Adler), and Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)
48
Freud's psychoanalytic theory
- behavior results from interaction of id, ego, and superego
- if unresolved, conflict between the 3 lead to mental disorders
- Id: instinctual drives (appears first in infancy), operates on pleasure principle
- Ego: mediates demands of the id and realities of external world, operates on reality principle
- Superego: conscience, morals, inner control system
49
Primary process thinking
- Freud's psychoanalytic theory
- gratification of id demands by means of imagery or fantasy (without ability to undertake the realistic actions)
50
Secondary process thinking
- Freud's psychoanalytic theory
- reality-oriented rational processes of ego for dealing w external world and exercise of control over id demands
51
Freud and anxiety
- ego can cope with elevated anxiety through rational measures
- if anxiety exists only in unconscious it cannot be dealt w through rational measures so ego resorts to irrational protective measures called ego-defense mechanisms
- defense mechanisms reduce anxiety by pushing painful ideas out of consciousness instead of dealing w them
52
Freud's psychosexual stages of development
ORAL STAGE: 0-2 years
ANAL STAGE: 2-3 years
PHALLIC STAGE: 3-6 years
LATENCY PERIOD: 6-12 years (sexual motivations recede as child becomes preoccupied w developing skills and other activities)
GENITAL STAGE: 12+ years/after puberty
53
Ego Psychology
- part of psychoanalytic perspective
- Anna Freud
- ego in foreground of ego-defense mechanisms
- important organizing role of ego in personality dev.
- psychopathology develops when ego does not control/delay impulse gratification or does not use defense-mechanisms properly
54
Object-Relations Theory
- part of psychodynamic perspective
- focus on interactions of individual w real and imagined other ppl and on relationships ppl experience between external and internal objects (symbolic representations of ppl in child's environment)
- through introjection, child incorporates these objects into their personality
55
Interpersonal Perspective
- part of psychodynamic perspective
- Alfred Adler defected from Freud's psychoanalytic theory
- social and cultural forces rather than inner instincts as determinants of behavior
- psychopathology is rooted in unfortunate tendencies we have developed while dealing w interpersonal environments
56
Attachment Theory
- part of psychodynamic perspective
- John Bowlby's theory
- emphasizes importance of early experience (esp. w attachment relationships) as foundation for later functioning
- infant plays more active role in shaping her own development
57
Criticisms of psychoanalytic perspective
- failure as a scientific theory to explain abnormal behavior
- fails to realize limits of self-reports as primary information source
- lack of scientific evidence to support effectiveness of traditional psychoanalysis
58
Humanistic perspective
- views human nature as basically "good"
- emphasizes present conscious processes
- emphasis on ppls inherent capacity for responsible self-direction
- focus on values and personal growth
- Carl Rogers developed systematic formulation of self-concept
- psychopathology is blocking or distortion of personal growth
59
Existential perspective
- less optimistic than humanistic perspective
- emphasis on irrational tendencies and difficulties inherent in self-fulfillment
- abnormal behavior seen as product of failure to deal constructively w existential despair and frustration
60
Behavioral Perspective
- psychological perspective
- reaction against unscientific methods of psychoanalysis
- study of directly observable behavior + stimuli/reinforcing conditions that control it
- developed through lab research, not clinical practice
- Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner, Bandura
61
Learning
- modification of behavior as a consequence of experience
- focus of behavioral perspective
62
Classical conditioning
- neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly w unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditoned behavior
- neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response
- not as blind or automatic as once thought -- conditioning only occurs when CS provides reliable info ab occurrence of US (stimulus-stimulus expectancy)
63
Extinction (classical conditioning)
- gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced
64
Spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)
- return of learned response at some time after extinction has occurred
65
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
- changed focus of psyc to study of overt behavior (behaviorism)
- abnormal behavior is result of inadvertent earlier conditioning and can be modified through reconditioning
66
Operant (or instrumental) conditioning
- individual learns how to achieve a goal, get reward or avoid smt unpleasant (which reinforces behavior)
- response-outcome expectancy (response will lead to reward outcome
- instrumental responses are especially persistent when reinforcement is intermittent (ex gambling)
- conditioned avoidance (avoid stressful situation) plays role in many patterns of abnormal behavior
67
Generalization (classical and operant conditioning)
- tendency of response conditioned to one stimulus to be elicited by similar stimuli
68
Discrimination (classical and operant conditioning)
- ability to interpret and respond differently to two or more similar stimuli
69
Observational learning
- learning through observation alone
- Albert Bandura (Bobo doll experiment)
70
Criticisms of behavioral approach
- concerned only with symptoms, not causes (BUT still effective therapy so this isnt super valid)
- oversimplification of human behavior (criticism might be due to misunderstandings)
71
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
- focus on how thoughts and info processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior
- Bandura, Beck,
- schemas and self-schemas
72
Bandura and the cognitive-behavioral perspective
- Bandura: we learn by internal-reinforcement; ppl have a "capacity for self-direction"; theory of "self-efficacy" (belief that one can achieve desired goals)
- believed cognitive-behavioral treatments work by improving self-efficacy
73
Self-schema
- our view of what we are, what we might become, and what is important to us
- notion of various roles we occupy
74
Assimilation
- adding new experience to existing schema
75
Accommodation
- changing schema to incorporate new info that doesn't fit
76
Schema
- underlying representation of knowledge that guides info processing and can lead to distortions
- pretty resistant to change
- Beck: psychopathology characterized by maladaptive schema(s) developed as result of adverse early learning experiences
77
Attribution Theory
- part of cognitive-behavioral perspective
- attribution: assigning causes to things that happen
- non-depressed ppl have self-serving bias
78
Cognitive Therapy
- Beck: founder of cognitive therapy
- shift in focus from behavior to underlying cognitions
- central issue: how to best alter distorted and maladaptive cognitions
79
Social perspective
- factors beyond our control in early childhood can deeply influence individuals
- 6 main social factors with detrimental effects on socioemotional development: early deprivation/trauma, problems in parenting style, marital discord/divorce, low socioeconomic status/unemployment, maladaptive peer relationships, and prejudice/discrimination
80
Early deprivation or trauma
- risk factor in social perspective
- ex institutionalization (orphanages)
- ex neglect or abuse in the home (higher rates of teen + adult psychopathology; disorganized and disoriented style of attachment)
- ex separation (long-term effects depend on support and reassurance given by other caregivers)
81
Problems in parenting style
- risk factor in social perspective
- parental psychopathology linked to increased risk for wide range of developmental difficulties
- authoritative (high warmth + control): most positive early social development
- authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control): children tend to be irritable and moody, teens have lower social and academic performance
- permissive/indulgent parenting (high warmth, low control): associated w impulsive/aggressive behavior in children and teens
- neglectful/uninvolved parenting (low warmth+control): disruptions in attachment, moodiness, low self-esteem, conduct problems
82
Marital discord and divorce
- risk factor in social perspective
- marital discord can impact child's social relationships
- divorced and separated ppl overrepresented among psychiatric patients
- children of divorce can have psychological problems but usually there are signs of these before divorce too
83
Low socioeconomic status and unemployment
- risk factor in social perspective
- lower socioeconomic class = higher incidence of mental disorders
- in teens, perceptions of own social status most strongly linked to higher rates of mental disorders
- unemployment=enhanced vulnerability to psychopathology
84
Maladaptive peer relationships
- risk factor in social perspective
- bullying and cyberbullying
- prosocial and antisocial popular children
- rejected children : too aggressive or very withdrawn
- peer social problems may reflect heritable diathesis but also serve as stressors that increase likelihood of later disorder
85
Prejudice and discrimination
- risk factor in social perspective
- higher levels of stress and negative effects on physical and mental health
86
Cultural Perspective-
- concerned w impact of culture on definition and manifestation of mental disorders
- sociocultural factors can influence which disorders develop, forms they take, their courses, and prevalence
- more favourable course of schizophrenia in developing countries vs developed
- stress more tied to depression in western cultures
- in japan secure attachment is being dependent and not outwardly expressing emotions
87
Cultural syndromes
- cultural concept of distress
- clusters of clinical symptoms that often appear together in individuals from certain cultures
88
Cultural idioms of distress
- cultural concept of distress
- culture-specific ways of expressing distress to others
89
Cultural explanations
- cultural concept of distress
- different ways of explaining causes of different symptoms or disorders
PSYC 337
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