Psyc 111 > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Neuron

A

Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks.

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2
Q

What is the significance of Santiago Ramon y Cajal?

A

He was the first scientist to stain neurons so that one could properly differentiate between the different features of the neuron - The dendrites and axons became clear - it also became clear that all neurons weren’t touching each other

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3
Q

Dendrite:

A

The part of a neuron that receives info from other neurons and relays it to the cell body

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4
Q

Cell body

A

The part of a neuron that coordinates information processing tasks and keeps the cell alive.

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5
Q

Axon

A

The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

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6
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

An insulating layer of fatty material - speeds up neurotransmission
Made from oligodendrocytes (type of glial cell)

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7
Q

Glial Cells

A

Support and protect cells found in the nervous systems.

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8
Q

Synapses

A

The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another. It changes the electrical impulse into a chemical message.

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9
Q

What are the three major types of neurons?

A

Sensory Neurons: They receive information from the external world and convey that information to the brain via the spinal cord.
Interneurons: These are the connecting neurons. They connect all of the different types of neurons.
Motor Neurons: These neurons carry the signal from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement.

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10
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Mirror neurons are the neurons that are activated when we do something and when we watch someone else do the same thing.

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11
Q

How does communication with neurons work?

A

It proceeds in two stages - first, an electrical signal is conducted inside the neuron, from the dendrites to the cell body, and then down the axon. Second, a chemical signal is transmitted from one neuron to another, across the synapse.

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12
Q

What is resting potential? (Use image to explain)

A

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane - it’s the charge the neuron has when it’s just sitting there.
- There is more K+ and A- inside the neuron and there are more Na+ outside. This makes the inside of the neuron slightly more negative than the outside.

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13
Q

What is action potential?

A

An electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a synapse.
- Action potential occurs only when the electric shock reaches a certain threshold (gun firing analogy)

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14
Q

What happens after action potential is activated?

A

The cell needs to get back to homeostasis. The depolarisation caused by the action potential needs to be changed back. This is done via a chemical pump. The Na is taken back outside the axon and the K is moved back inside.

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15
Q

What is the refractory period?

A

(When the neuron has to take a breath) The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated.

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16
Q

Why are the Myelin Sheath and Nodes of Ranvier so important?

A

They speed up the conduction of information down the axon.

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17
Q

Explain the gate analogy for action potential.

A
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18
Q

How is homeostasis achieved after the action potential is released?

A

The depolarisation caused by the action potential has to be changed back. This is done via a chemical pump - the Na is taken outside the axon and the K is moved inside.

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19
Q

What are terminal buttons?

A

These are knoblike structures that branch out from an axon.

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20
Q

What is chemical signalling?

A

It describes the process of information being passed between neurons through chemicals called neurotransmitters.

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21
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

These are chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrite.

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22
Q

What are receptors?

A

This is the part of the cell membrane that receives the neurotransmitter and either initiates or prevents a new electric signal.

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23
Q

Describe Acetylcholine (ACh) and its role.

A

It is a neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control. It enables muscle action , learning and memory. When a person Alzheimer’s disease, the ACh -producing neurons are deteriorating.

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24
Q

Describe dopamine and its role.

A

It is a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behaviour, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal. Studies have been done to say that addiction problems are due to dopamine.
Linked to schizophrenia (if you have too much) and when we are starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of Parkinson’s disease. (Schizophrenia is more and more linked to pot usage)
One of the ways of understanding addictive behaviour (why we choose to do certain behaviours over others) is through dopamine - something feels good, so we do more.

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25
Describe glutamate and its role.
It is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It’s the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter. Plays a key role in LTP - located in hippocampus and amygdala Stored in the vesicles of the presynaptic neuron Nerve impulses (action potentials) triggers releases into the synapse Glutamite… Too much glutamate overstimulates the brain and can cause seizures or migraines (why some people avoid MSG, it is connected to glutamate)
26
What is GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and explain its role.
The primary inhibitor neurotransmitter in the brain. Undersupply of it is linked to insomnia, tremors, and seizures
27
What is norepinephrine and explain its role.
It is involved in heightened states of vigilance or heightened awareness of dangers in an environment. Undersupply of it can cause a depressed mood.
28
What is serotonin and explain its role.
It is involved in the regulation of sleep, wakefulness, eating, and aggressive behaviour. It is produced in our digestive system and in our intestines - requires a good biome in the digestive system. If feeling down, MDs will give SSRIs. (People who have chosen to be violent are on these, based on studies that have been conducted in the past.) Low on serotonin? Get the digestive system working better. (Bad bacteria, parasites, etc. can cause our digestive system to stop working properly) Important for helping us to sleep and feel better. Digestive system as the second brain - if something is off in our mind, there might be something off in our digestive system as well. Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels. In the past, low serotonin has been linked to depression - this thought process is being criticized recently.
29
What are endorphins?
Chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centres of the brain.
30
What is the runner's high?
It is a general feeling of pleasure and well-being. Opiate drugs such as heroin and morphine mimic endorphins and bind to their receptor sites.
31
What is an agonist drug?
It is a drug that increases the action of a neurotransmitter. Examples of this working includes:L-dopa - for dopamine. Trying to use it to regulate dopamine in our bodies. It doesn’t go across the blood-brain barrier the same way so one has to take a lot for it to actually work. Drugs that increase the release of neurotransmitters: Amphetamine Drugs bind to autoreceptors and block their inhibitory effect: Clonidine - for high blood pressure Drugs block the deactivation: Prozac and cocaine Drugs bind to postsynaptic receptors and activate them or increase the neurotransmitter effect: Nictotine
32
What is an antagonist?
These drugs diminish the function of a neurotransmitter. -Block the production of neurotransmitters: AMPT -Cause depletion of neurotransmitters in vesicles: Reserpine -Block the release of neurotransmitter: Botulinum toxin -Activate autoreceptors so that the inhibit the release of neurotransmitters: Caffeine - Bind to postsynaptic receptors and block neurotransmitter binding: Propranalol and Haldol
33
Give examples of specific drugs that interfere with the nervous system by increasing, interfering, or mimicking neurotransmitters.
L-dopa, heroin (MPPP and MPTP), methamphetamine
34
How does the use of cocaine impact our ability to identify facial expressions?
Regular cocaine users have a harder time identifying expressions of disgust, surprise, and fear.
35
Explain how L-Dopa works. (Levodopa)
People take it when their brain doesn't make enough dopamine. (For people with Parkinsons) Dopamine itself can't enter the brain, so this is why they can't just be given a dopamine pill. Once inside the brain, l-dopa is converted into dopamine. With L-Dopa -the body needs to do an extra step - it has to be actively transported to the central nervous system and then converted to dopamine in the brain. So large doses are needed for it to actually work. It doesn’t stop Parkinson's but it is helpful for relieving symptoms. It is not a cure and can lower mortality rates if started early. Quite effective in relieving bradykinesia, tremors, rigidity; less effective in helping postural instability, shuffling gait.
36
What is the nervous system?
It is an interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body.
37
What is the central nervous system?
It is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
38
Describe how the brain and the spinal cord work together in the CNS.
Someone burns their finger - the message is sent through sensory neurons - the message is then sent to the spinal cord - some info is sent to the brain and some is sent to the motor neurons for an instant response. (fast and slow pathways)
39
What is the peripheral nervous system?
It connects the CNS to the body's organs and muscles.
40
What is the autonomic nervous system? (ANS)
It is a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands.
41
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
A set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations. Amps us up. We are getting ready to move and are aroused. There are a bunch of organs that change - Pupils dilate, bronchi relax (take in more o2), heart rate accelerates, digestion is inhibited (want energy to go to moving quickly), stimulation of glucose release, release of norepinephrine, bladder relaxation So scared, we pee our pants - This is not a bad thing, not a sign of a cowardice Survival mode is being stuck in a sympathetic nervous system response. (It is very exhausting)
42
What is the somatic nervous system?
A set of nerves that conveys info between the skeletal muscles and the cns
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What is the forebrain?
It is the highest level of the brain. It is critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions.
45
What is the midbrain?
It is important for orientation and movement. (Has the tectum and tegmentum)
46
What is the hindbrain?
Coordinates info coming in and out of the spinal cord. It controls the basic functions of life. It contains the Medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum, pons
47
Why is the brainstem important?
It supports important life-sustaining bodily functions.
48
What is the pons? (hindbrain)
It relays info from the cerbellum to the rest of the brain. Helps control sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture If damaged, you would stay alive, but daily life would be severely disrupted.
49
How important is the medulla? (hindbrain)
You would have trouble with basic bodily functions if this was injured. It is an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration. (extension of the spinal cord into the skull)
50
What does the reticular formation do?
Regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal A cat with a cut reticular formation lapses into a permanent coma
51
What does the cerebellum do? (hindbrain)
enables nonverbal learning, coordinates voluntary movements. We use it for things like balancing or playing the piano. If damaged - hard to walk, wouldn’t respond as well to classical conditioning
52
What does the pituitary gland do? (forebrain?)
It is the master gland of the body's endocrine system. Receives hormone signals from the hypothalamus Sends hormone signals to other glands to control stress, digestive activities, and reproductive activities Involved in the sympathetic nervous system responses - Hypothalamus - Pituitary gland -
53
What does the Basal Ganglia do?
It is a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements and plays a role in reward processing. it directs intentional movement It receives input from the cerebral cortex Sends output to motor centres in the brainstem Striatum involves the control of posture and movement
54
What does the thalamus (forebrain) do?
It relays and filters information from the senses and transfers the information to the cerebral cortex. It receives input from all of the senses except smell.
55
What does the hypo(below)thalamus do?
regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, sex beh., and part of the Limbic system (the Limbic system has become controversial - some psychologists think that the focus of it is too narrow)
56
What is the limbic system?
It is a group of forebrain structures that are involved in motivation, learning, emotion, and memory. (HATCH - Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Cerebral Cortex, Hippocampus) It is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex.
57
What does the hypothalamus do?
It regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviour.
58
What does the amygdala do?
Located at the tip of each horn of the hippocampus, it plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories.
59
What does the hippocampus do?
It is critical for creating and integrating new memories.
60
What is the endocrine system?
A network of glands that produce and secrete into the bloodstream chemical messages known as hormones, which influence a wide variety of functions, including metabolism, growth, and sexual development.
61
What is the main function of the occipital lobe?
It processes visual information. (It is located at the back of the cerebral cortex.
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What is the main function of the parietal lobe?
It processes information about touch. (Contains the sensorymotor cortex)
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What is the main function of the temporal lobe?
It is responsible for hearing and language.
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What does the Corpus Callosum do?
Connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres.
65
What has furthered our understanding of the brain and its functions?
In the past, people have primarily been studying damaged brains to better understand fully functioning brains.
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Who was Phinneas Gage?
He was a 25 year old railroad worker who got an iron rod driven through his head. Incredibly enough, he survived, but was changed forever, physically and mentally.
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What are Grand Mal seizures?
This is when the seizing in the brain spreads across both hemispheres of the brain. To solve it, doctors started severing the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerves that connected the hemispheres.
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What happens to people who have a severed corpus callosum?
They can see and pick up objects, but they struggle to give meaning to them.
69
How has technology changed the way we study the brain?
In the past, tech only allowed scientists to see images of what was happening in the brain. New technology allows them to see the brain activated and working in real time. (fMRIs, CT, and MRI scans)
70
How can causality be established in the brain?
In the past, scientists were concluding causality on the basis of correlational research. But, new techniques now actually allow them to manipulate and mimic brain damage so that they can actually control the variables and conduct proper experiments. This was made possible with TMS - Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation - they are able to ethically mimic brain damage. Paired with fMRIS, TMS is a very powerful tool.
71
What is brain death?
Brain death is the irreversible loss of all functions in the brain.
72
What is the significance of the Terri Schiavo case?
Terri was a woman who was kept alive on a respirator and feeding tube for nearly 15 years. She was described to have been in a persistent vegetative state. It was quite controversial as it became clear that we don't currently have a great definition for what it means for someone to be brain dead. There was a legal battle between her husband and her parents for whether she should be kept on life support. He husband felt that she wouldn't have wanted to live this way and her parents felt that she had displayed evidence of voluntary behaviour. (Indicating a level of consciousness)
73
What are the somatosensory and motor cortices?
The somatosensory cortex processes touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception. The motor cortex plans and executes voluntary movements. They are organised topographically with more area being devoted to more sensitive regions in our bodies. (The homunculus man)
74
What is brain plasticity? What supports it?
This is the idea that our sensory cortices can adapt to change. If an area of the brain is damaged, the functions that area was responsible for can be reassigned to a different area. (The younger you are, the smoother your brain can make this transition) Greater use of an area, by means of practice, strengthens it. As well, exercise supports and strengthens the connections in our synapses.
Psyc 111
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