1
Q
development
A
refers to the continuities and changes that occur within the individual between conception and death
2
Q
what does nature and nurture say?
A
- nature is as genetic traits, and dispositions
- nurture is as environment, culture, and experiences
3
Q
what does change and stability say?
A
- how do we change/ stay the same
- stability = personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan
- change argues that personalities are modified by interactions with people and different experiences
4
Q
sensitive period
A
the overlapping periods of child development where they’re sensitive to specific stimuli and affects if they develop “normally”
5
Q
what does continuity vs stages say?
A
- continuity refers to the view that development is a gradual, continuous process
- stages refers to the view that development occurs in a distinct series
6
Q
ways to study developmental psychology
A
- longitudinal
- cross sectional
- sequential
7
Q
longitudinal design
A
research in which the same individuals are studied repeatedly over some subset of their lifespan
8
Q
pros and cons of longitudinal design
A
Pros:
- can assess developmental change
Cons:
- very expensive and time consuming
- selective attribution
- original research may become obsolete
- practice effects and cohort effects
9
Q
cross sectional design
A
design in which individuals from different age groups are studied at the same point in time.
10
Q
pros and cons of cross sectional design
A
Pros:
- less time consuming and expensive
- can uncover age differences
Cons:
- cant distinguish age effects from cohort effects
- can’t assess developmental change
11
Q
sequential design
A
design in which individuals from different age groups are repeatedly tested over some subset of their lifespan
12
Q
pros and cons of sequential design
A
Pros:
- less time consuming and expensive than longitudinal
- can assess developmental change
Cons:
- more expensive and time consuming than cross-sectional
- can’t generalize results to other cohorts
13
Q
prenatal development stages
A
1.) conception
2.) germinal stage (10-14 days)
3.) embryonic stage (week 2-8)
4.) fetal stage (week 9 - birth)
14
Q
conception
A
→ sperm and egg unite to bring genetic material together and form fertilized egg (zygote)
15
Q
germinal stage
A
→ cell division occurs at an exponential rate
→ cells already begin to differentiate into specialized structures and locations
16
Q
embryonic stage
A
→period when most vital organs are formed
→ an extreme period of vulnerability
→ cell differentiation continues as cells develop into organs and bones (heart, arm, leg etc.)
17
Q
fetal stage
A
→ state of growth and refinement in all existing organs
→ 3 months = smile/frown, 6 months = sight and hearing, 9 months = increase in weight
→ age of viability is 6 months and may be able to survive outside of the womb
18
Q
genetic problems inutero
A
Chromosomal abnormalities (ex: down syndrome)
19
Q
environmental problems inutero
A
- exposure to teratogens =any drug, disease, pollution, or other factor that can be detrimental effects on the developing embryo or fetus
- maternal characteristics = health, age
20
Q
what is occurring in a newborn?
A
- tactile, auditory and chemical perceptual systems all are operating at birth
- will orient themselves toward sources of significant stimuli (i.e sound, odours etc.)
21
Q
characteristics of a newborns visual system
A
- the least developed sense at birth
- prefer patterned stimuli
- prefer mothers face
- same colour vision
- size and shape constancy
22
Q
reflexes in the newborn
A
rooting, moro, grasping
23
Q
rooting reflex
A
touch around cheek and baby will orient touch
24
Q
moro reflex
A
when startled by lack of support to the head, the baby will flail their arms out
25
grasping reflex
when a baby’s palm is touched, they squeeze in a very strong grip
26
brain weight of a baby
- at birth, 25% of adult weight
- at 6 months, 50% of adult weight
→ growth rate of brain slows in childhood but cells become larger and neural networks form
27
what is the order of brain development in a baby?
the brain grows inside out
→ t birth, the brainstem and midbrain are the most develop
→ the first area of the cerebrum to mature are the primary sensory and motor cortexes
→ the last areas are the associative area of the cortex
28
vision development of baby
goes from 1/40th of the visual acuity of adults at birth to 20/20 vision at 6 months
29
audition development of a baby
phoneme discrimination exceeds that of an adult and disappear by 1 year of age
30
growth trends of a baby
1.) Cephalocaudal principle: development proceeds from head to foot
→ head is largest and body develops later
2.) Proximodistal principle: development proceeds from innermost to outer
→ arms before fingers
→ torso before arms
31
sequence of motor development
1.) Sitting unsupported 6 months
2.) crawling at 8-9 months
3.) beginning to walk at 12 months
4.) walking independently at 15 months
→ the age of acquiring these skill varies however, the sequence does not change
32
cognition
refers to the mental activities that help us function including:
- problem solving
- memory
- language
- concepts
- reasoning and decision making
- using self-talk and inner thoughts
33
what did Jean Piaget do for cognitive development?
- he studied errors in cognition by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
- identified stages of cognitive development that unfold as children mature
- believed we build schemas to achieve understanding, which is an organized pattern of thought that represents our understanding of a concept/experience
34
how can schemas be modifed?
1.) assimilation: new experiences incorporated into what we already know
2.) accommodation: new experiences cause change in what we already know
35
what did Piaget believe?
→ believed in nature and nurture = that children grow by maturation and by learning through interacting/playing with the environment
→ piaget believed that development proceeds in stages and that each stage represents a distinct way of thinking
36
stages of cognitive development
1.) sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)
2.) preoperational (2 to 7 yrs)
3.) concrete operational (7 to 11 yrs)
4.) formal operational (11+ yrs)
37
sensorimotor stage
- uderstand world through sensory experiences and physical interactions with objects
- begin to acquire language
- develop object permanence and the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen
38
preoperational stage
- world is represented symbolically through words and mental images
- symbolic thinking enables pretend play
- some unique ways of thinking: don't understand conservation, display egocentrism, commit scale errors
39
concrete operational stage
- easily perform basic mental operation involving tangible problems and solutions
- understand conservation and other concrete transformations
- difficulties with abstract problems
40
formal operational stage
- can think logically about concrete and abstract problems
- able to form and test hypotheses
41
what was said after Piaget's theory was reassessed?
→ development is a continuous process
→ children show some mental abilities and operations at an earlier than Piaget thought
→ formal logic is a smaller part of cognition than even for adults than Piaget believed
42
what is the main point of Vygotsky's theory?
says that a child's cognitive development and learning ability can be guided and mediated by their social interactions.
43
what did Vygotsky say?
- Social interaction is important for development
- children learn thinking skills by internalizing language from others and developing inner speech
- development viewed as building on mentoring, language and cognitive support from cargivers
- ideal level of instruction is the zone of proximal development = child can’t quite do alone but can with guidance of teacher/helper
44
attachment
strong emotional bond between children and primary caregivers important for survival and development
45
what is the attachment process for newborns?
Newborns = indiscriminate attachment
3 months = discriminate attachment
7 to 8 months = specific attachment
46
two types of specific attachment
1.) stranger anxiety @ 6-18 months = distress over contact with unfamiliar people
2.) separation anxiety @ 1-3 years = distress over being away from primary caregivers
47
types of attachment styles
- secure attachment (60%)
- insecure attachment = anxious, avoidant, disorganized (10%, 15%, 15%)
48
characteristics of secure attachment
- infant explores when mother is present and is upset when she leaves
- greets mother warmly upon her return and seeks her comfort
49
characteristics of anxious/ambivalent attachment
- infant clings to mother and is less likely to explore the environment
- upset when mother leaves and likely remains upset when she returns
50
characteristics of anxious/avoidant attachment
- infant shows very little distress when mother leaves and seems to ignore her
- may be sociable with or ignore stranger
51
characteristics of disorganized/disoriented attachment
- infant seems to both approach and avoid mother
- may act dazed or freeze
52
what causes different attachment styles?
parenting behaviour is a key factor!!!
→sensitive and responsive parenting = secure attachments
→inconsistent, impatient caregiving = insecure attachments
53
authoritarian parenting style
"too hard"
- parents impose rules and expect obedience
54
permissive parenting style
"too soft"
- parents submit to kids’ desires, don’t enforce limits or set standards for child’s behaviours
55
authoritative parenting style
"just right"
- parents enforce rules, limits, and standards but also explain, discuss, listen and express respect for child’s ideas and wishes
56
correlation between parental relationship and child success
strong relationship between paternal involvement in parenting and the child’s academic success, health and overall well being!!
57
what happens when theres deprivation of attachment?
- difficulty forming attachments
- increased anxiety and depression
- increased aggression
58
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood
59
puberty
the time of sexual maturation and becoming physically able to reproduce
60
physical development in puberty
- increased sex hormones leads to = primary and secondary sex characteristics and changes in mood/ behaviour
- height changes are early signs (female grow sooner)
61
brain development in puberty
- the brain stops automatically adding new connections and becomes more efficient “rewiring” (remove connections not used and coat the well used ones)
- frontal lobes last to rewire
- emotional limbic system is wired before front judgment center = no understanding of risks/reward
62
cognitive development in puberty
According to Piaget:
- think about how reality compares to ideals
- think hypothetically about different choices and their consequences
- plan how to pursue goals
- think about the minds of others, including “what do they think of me?”
63
moral development in puberty
using Kohlberg's theory:
1.) pre conventional morality (up to age 9)
2.) conventional morality (adolescence)
3.) post conventional morality (later adult)
64
pre convential morality
- morality is externally controlled
- rules imposed by authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
65
conventional morality
- an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong
- individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience
66
post conventional morality
based on a person's individual ethics, which will take precedence over societal laws, rules, and norm
67
what is Erik Erikson's model of lifelong psychosocial development?
- identity vs role confusion
- sees adolescence as a struggle to form an identity, a sense of self, out of the social roles adolescents are asked to play
- adolescents may try out different “selves” with peers, with parents and with teachers
68
2 relevant stages to emotional and social developmnet
1.) Competence vs Inferiority = adolescents have ideally just finished working through this (learn to enjoy working through tasks or feel inferior)
2.) intimacy vs Isolation = after adolescence, they are ready to take on the challenge of an intimate relationship (or feel socially isolated).
69
are parent or peer influences stronger?
→ during adolescence, peer relationships take center stage
→ however, adolescents often look to their parents for important things: career, religion etc
70
parts of searching for an identity
1.) identity diffusion = no identity crisis
2.) foreclosure = adopting a role before crisis
3.) moratorium = identity crisis
4.) identity achievement = identity crisis resolved
71
what physical abilities decline in adulthood?
- visual acuity, both sharpness and brightness
- hearing, especially sensing higher pitch
- reaction time and general motor abilities
- neural processing speed for complex and novel tasks
- end of reproduction years (age 50=menopause)
72
what peak physical abilities come with biological maturation in adulthood?
in mid 20's....
- muscular strength
- cardiac output
- reaction time
- sensory reactivity
73
how does health and immunity change as we age?
→ bad news = immune system declines with age and can have difficulty fighting off major illnesses
→ good news = immune system has a lifetime’s accumulation of antibodies and does well fighting off minor illnesses
74
what can exercise do for an aging individual?
- stimulate neurogenesis (in the hippocampus) and new neural connections
- build muscles and bones
- maintain telomeres (the tips of chromosomes that wear down with every generation of cell duplication)
- improve cognition and educe the risk of dementia
75
what changes happen in the brain as aging occurs?
- myelin-enhanced neural processing speed peaks in the teen years, and declines thereafter
- regions of the brain related to memory begin to shrink with age, making it harder to form new memories
- the frontal lobes atrophy, leading to eventual decreased inhibition and self-control
76
what cognitive changes do/do not occur as an individual ages?
→ With age = changes in our ability to learn, process, and recall information
→ Not with age = the ability to recognize information, and to use previous knowledge as expertise
77
what aspects of learning and memory decline as aging occurs?
- Rote memorization ability declines more than ability to learn meaningful information
- Prospective memory, or planning to recall also declines
- The ability to learn new skills declines less than the ability to learn new information
78
what is a midlife crisis?
→ reevaluating one’s life plan and success doesn’t peak at any age
→25% of adults who have this crisis, trigger = challenge of illness, job loss, parenting, divorce
79
age related issues
1.) young adulthood = intimacy vs isolation (relationship or lonely)
2.) middle adulthood = generativity vs stagnation (sense of contribution or lack of purpose)
3.) late adulthood = integrity vs despair (satisfaction or failire)
80
life satisfaction
measured by how close people feel to the ‘best possible life’ is apparently not a function of age
81
coping with death and dying
- grief is more intense when death occurs unexpectedly
-NO standard pattern/ length of the grieving process
- helps to have the support of friends or groups
- face the reality of death and grief while affirming the value of life
PS102
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