1
Q
What is behaviour a result of?
A
Genotypes, environments, and G-E interactions
2
Q
What is phenotypic variability within a trait?
A
variability in how a trait is expressed
3
Q
is behavioural variation associated with genetic variation?
A
yes
4
Q
what is loci?
A
location
5
Q
what is heritability (H2)?
A
proportion of phenotypic variation in a trait that is due to genetic influences (variability)
- called Broad Sense Heritability because this fraction includes all genetic effects on the phenotype
6
Q
What is the formula for H2?
A
Vg/Vp
7
Q
What are the multiple factors that affect phenotypes?
A
Additive effects (A), Dominance effects (D), and Epistasis (I)
8
Q
What are additive effects?
A
the average effect of individual alleles on the phenotype - independant of other genes or the environment
9
Q
what are dominance effects (D)?
A
the interaction between alleles at one locus, in which one allele can mask the expression (phenotype) of the other
10
Q
what is epistasis (I)?
A
the interaction between genes at different loci such that one gene modifies the effect of another or acts with it to produce a new phenotype, can be on different loci or different chromosomes (depends on biologist)
11
Q
what is h2?
A
Narrow sense heritability - reflects proportion of phenotypic variation due solely to additive genetic values
- the greater the narrow-sense heritability of a trait, the more likely we are to observe a close resemblance between offspring and their parents
12
Q
what is the formula for h2?
A
h2=Va/Vp
13
Q
What was the research question in the exploratory behaviour in great tits experiment?
A
is exploratory behaviour in great tits a heritable trait?
14
Q
what was the hypothesis in the exploratory great tits experiment?
A
exploratory behaviour has a genetic component
15
Q
what is the prediction in the exploratory great tit behaviour?
A
there will be a positive correlation between a parent’s exploratory behaviour and that of its offspring.
16
Q
Explain the exploratory great tit behaviour experiment?
A
- researchers placed individuals in an aviary with 5 wooden trees
- recorded the number of flights and hops in the aviary in the first two minutes as an index of exploratory behaviour
- made a parent offspring regression analysis with the data, the results were positive; positive correlation
17
Q
Explain heritability in a parent-offspring analysis
A
- mean trait values of parents regressed against mean trait values of offspring
- slope can range from 0-1
- higher the slope value, the more the offspring resemble their parents
- higher slope values indicate that a greater proportion of the phenotypic variance is additive variance, or the variation passed from parents to offspring
18
Q
explain the german shepherd heritability results
A
- examined behavioural field tests results of german shepherds of known pedigree (breed)
- heritability scores ranged from low to intermediate numbers
- variability score ranged from low to intermediate numbers
- not ever single individual will behave the same, that’s why have range
- bc variability, can’t have exact conclusion of genes and behaviour traits
19
Q
what is a reflex?
A
involuntary behaviour to stimulus in environment
20
Q
what are instinctive or innate behaviours?
A
reflexes, fixed action patter
21
Q
what is a fixed action pattern?
A
sequence of behaviour, go to completion as long as is initiated, more complicated than reflexes
22
Q
what is wild type?
A
is the typical form of an organism that occurs in nature
23
Q
how did the mutant type in fruit flies differ from the wild type in fruit flies?
A
mutant type is yellow whereas wild type is grey
24
Q
what was the RQ of the fruit flies experiment?
A
why aren’t yellow forms of fruit flies more common in nature?
25
what were the the methods used in the fruit fly experiment?
interbred wild-type and mutant 'yellow' flies, conducted mating trials and observed male mating behaviour, not fixed pattern because male can skip a step in mating (orienting, wing vibration, licking, copulation)
25
what was the big question of the fruit flies example?
whether the yellow colouration also produced some change in behaviour, perhaps change was linked to reproductive success
26
what were the results of the fruit fly experiment?
wild type males had higher mating success + mated sooner + showed more courtship than mutant yellow males
27
what was the conclusion of the fruit fly experiment?
differences in courtship behaviour result in reduced mating success of yellow individuals. the importance of this experiment showed that variation in genotype associated with variation in behavioural phenotype.
28
which website allows for genomic info about any species on the internet?
The national center for biotechnology information
29
what is QTL?
Quantitative trait loci (QTL) are stretches of DNA that either contain or are linked to genes influencing a trait such as behaviour
30
What is QTL mapping?
a statistical technique that combines genetic information with trait information to determine which regions of the genome contain the genes that influence the trait QTLs
31
What are candidate genes?
candidate genes are major genes suspected of contributing to a large amount of the phenotypic variation in a specific trait
31
How to identify genes of interest associated with behaviours?
QTL mapping
32
what is a selection experiment?
used to create populations of individuals with different behavioural phenotypes, start mating individuals with similarity in said trait, start having divergence through generations until sealing is reached
33
what is sealing?
max a population can reach
34
What is QTL analysis?
protocol for TLC analysis, individuals with different behavioural phenotypes are crossed to create family groups with much behavioural variation
35
What is the goal of QTL?
figure out which regions of the genome contain the genes that influence a particular trait, procedure can provide information about the number of genes and also their location on chromosomes
36
what are genetic markers?
genetic markers are attached to DNA fragments for each individual using recombinant DNA techniques
37
what are two things required to begin a QTL analysis?
first - need two or more strains of organisms that differ genetically with regard to the trait of interest, second need genetic markers that distinguish between these parental lines
38
what are the three types of genetic markers?
restriction fragment lenght polymorphisms, simple sequence repeats, single nucleotide polymorphisms
38
describe restriction fragment lenght polymorphisms
can identify nucleotide sequence, is varied (nucelotides)
38
describe simple sequence repeats
single nucleotide repeated over and over again
39
describe single nucleotide polymorphisms
only varies at a single nucelotide
39
what are the DNA nucleobase?
A, T, G, C
40
what are the DNA nucleotides?
A, T, G, C + sugar + phosphate group
41
how can DNA sequences differ?
DNA sequence that only differs in a single base nucleotide
42
what was the observation for the QTL mapping for aphid behaviour?
genetically distinct types of aphids feed on different plant species
43
What was the RQ for aphid feeding behaviour?
how many genes are associated with plant choice in pea aphids?
44
where are aphids commonly found?
gardens, farms, other plant-rich environments
45
what are aphids known for?
for their ability to feed on the sap of plants by using their piercing-sucking mouthparts, which are adapted for piercing plant tissues and extracting the sugary fluids
46
describe the methodology fro aphid feeding behaviour?
one type specializes on alfalfa, another on clover, created F1 and F2 generations from crossing of two types, feeding trials - measured time searching and feeding, time spent walking or standing, the latency to inject saliva to begin the digestive process, and time spent digesting sap, assessed genotype using 116 amplified fragment-lenght polymorphism markers
47
what are the F1 and F2 generations
*The F1 generation is the first generation of offspring that results from crossing two parental individuals. The F2 generation is the second generation of offspring, and it results from crossing individuals of the F1 generation. In the F2 generation, the genetic diversity becomes more apparent. This generation can show a variety of genotypes and phenotypes because the alleles segregate during gamete formation and recombine in various ways during fertilization
48
what were the results of the aphid feeding behaviour experiment?
found one to three QTLs in plant acceptance behaviours for: 1) total time spent searching for feeding site 2) time spent on a plant before penetrating it 3) time spent digesting sap from each plant
proportion of variance explained by each QTL ranged from 7% to over 50%
49
what was the conclusion of the aphid feeding behaviour experiment?
a few major genes may be involved with plant selection behaviour
50
what type of species are fire ants and what do they cause?
invasive species, cause blisters
51
what was the RQ for fire ants?
do genes affect variation in social behaviour in fire ants?
52
what are the types of social behaviour in fire ants?
monogyne vs polygne
53
what is monogyne social behaviour?
single reproductive queen
54
what is polygne social behaviour?
multiple reproductive queens
55
what were the methods of the fire ant experiment?
collected monogyne and polygne colonies, conducted electrophoresis to compare allele frequences at several loci
56
what is gel electrophoresis?
a method used for separation and analysis of macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, various proteins and their fragments, based on their size and charge
57
what were the results of the fire ant experiment?
genotype and allelic frequency at one locus, Gp-9, differed between two types of colonies
monogyne colonies all displayed Gp-pBB, polygne colonies displayed Gp-9Bb
58
what was the conclusion of the fire ants experiment?
alleles at one locus appear to be involved in regulating social organization in fire ants
59
what was the RQ for the 'anxiety-related behaviour and knockout of a hormone receptor in mice' experiment?
what is the function of the AVPR 1 A receptor in mice?
60
what does a 'knockout' refer to?
refers to disabling a gene
61
what is a peptide hormone?
involved in fluid and blood pressure balance, involved in social recognition, pair bonding, parenting, stress
62
what is social recognition in mice?
being able to tell who is family, friends, stranger, etc.
63
what is a receptor?
a protein structure that molecules can bind to
64
what is vasopresin?
peptide hormone - also involved in stress
65
what were the methods for the anxiety in mice experiment?
created a knockout of V1aR gene, conducted stress tests on wild-type and knockout mice (knockout model had silenced gene involved in protein modeling)
- put animal in environment where will seek novelty seeking behaviour
66
what is novelty seeking behaviour?
behaviour that could be dangerous
67
how was behaviour of mice measured in mazes?
more anxious mice will spend more time in hidden area than open area, measures anxiety of animals
68
what were the three types of mazes for the mice?
elevated plus maze, open field test, light/dark box
69
what were the results and conclusion of the anxious mice experiment?
R - knockout mice spent more time in the open, light areas than did wild-type mice
C - V1aR gene plays an important role in affecting behaviour when animals are placed in stressful situations
- can't assu,e WT mice are naturally anxious - exhibit some sense of exploring behaviour, makes sense to hide in novel areas bc why expose to predator - som level of anxiety is good
- can't assume KO behaviour displayed is good - again some level of anxiety is good
70
what are closed-ended learners?
individuals must hear a tutor sing its conspecific song shortly after hatching in order to learn the song correctly
71
what are open-ended learners?
individuals can acquire new song elements throughout life
72
what is a conspecific individual?
an individual organism that belongs to the same species as another organisms
73
what type of learners are zebra finches?
closed-ended learners
74
what was the RQ for zebra finches?
what is the role of the FoxP2 gene in song development?
75
what is the FoxP2 gene?
expression increased when young birds learn to sing and open-ended adults change songs
76
why is song in birds so important?
lots of neural tissue devoted to song learning and production, mating opportunity can be lost if not right song/quality
77
what were the methods in the zebra finch song experiment?
knockdown technique (researchers use virus to insert short section of RNA into FoxP2 gene to reduce its expression), controls had short sections of RNA placed in noncoding region of DNA, adult make tutors and young juvenile males housed together (to teach young how to produce song), recorded songs
78
what is a sonograph/spectogram?
visual representation of buzzing, trills of song when vocalization occurs, gives data points to compare tutor and learner song (similarness), researchers look at things like frequency, duration, what actual song is
79
what were the results and conclusion of the zebra finch experiment?
R - knockdown birds had much lower FoxP2 express than controls, knockdown birds tended to omit specific syllables in their songs
C - FoxP2 is required for normal song development
80
How many individuals act as food scouts searching for new food sources
25%
81
explain the scouting bees experiment
In an experiment, researchers conducted feeding experiments to identify food scouts in an outdoor flight cage
All bees trained to obtain food from one source (e.g., a yellow coloured floral pattern with unscented sugar syrup)
Marked all bees at food source
Added a new food source and collected and marked all bees that found the new food source (exhibited novelty-seeking behaviour). The research team did this many times: new food source with new odour and location
Conducted whole-genome *RNA analysis on scouts and non-scouts on brain tissue
82
Where does DNA primarily stay?
DNA is relatively stable and remains primarily in the cell's nucleus, where it stores genetic information.
83
Explain RNA
RNA exists in various forms, including mRNA (messenger RNA), tRNA (transfer RNA), rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and other non-coding RNAs, each with specific functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular processes.
84
what were the results of the bee scouting experiment?
There were significant difference between mRNA transcripts of scouts and non-scouts, many of these genes related to neurotransmitters signaling associated with novelty-seeking behaviour in vertebrates such as catecholamine (dopamine is an example), GABA and glutamate
85
what was the conclusion of the scouting bee experiment?
found differential gene expression between the two phenotypes
86
do animal personalities show differences in behaviour overtime or across different environmental contexts?
yes
87
what is a reaction norm?
the range of behaviours expressed by a single genotype in different environments (aka variability, connected to GEI, depends on environment)
88
What are gene-environment interaction (GEI)?
when environment has greater effect on one genotype than others
89
what is the RQ for rover and sitter foraging behaviour in larval fruit flies?
Do different behavioural polymorphisms in fruit flies exhibit gene-environment interactions?
90
briefly explain the life cycle of the fruit fly life cycle
organism goes through different life stages where phenotypically their morphology also looks different, and have different developmental times in each stage
91
what does rover mean?
movement
92
what does sitter mean?
more likely to stick to one place
93
how was the polymorphism in fruit flies maintained?
because of frequency dependant selection, rover allele has higher fitness in crowded areas, sitters have higher fitness in less crowded areas
94
what were the results of the food patches experiment for the larval fruit fly foraging behaviour experiment?
was between patch foraging - 2 patches of yeast in same petri dish, saw rovers leave food patch whereas sitters do not
within patch foraging - one petri dish had yeast other one had nothing, more movement (line shows movement) for rovers compared to sitters when food is present, can't distinguish btn rovers and sitters when no food is present (all behave same)
95
what was the GEI for foraging fruit fly experiment?
GEI: behaviour changes with food presence/absence
96
what were the brief methods for the foraging adult fruit fly experiment?
Exposed adult rover and sitter phenotypes to different levels of food availability (fed or food deprived), recorded movement from environment they were initially placed in and from food patch (entry place with sucrose on it), used mass spectroscopy to determine compounds stored in head
97
what is mass spectroscopy?
lab technique separating lipids, carbs, etc.
98
explain the methods for the foraging fruit fly experiment
2 groups: fed or deprived some time before experiment, placed individuals in a vial, allowed to feed for some minutes with entry patch, then calculated food-leaving scores (% of flies in collecting vials after 3 mins)
99
what were the results of the foraging adult fruit fly experiment?
fed rovers had much higher food-leaving scores than did food-deprived rovers, no difference between fed and food-deprived sitters, lipids: in the food deprived environment, sitters store more, carbs: overall, rovers had lower carbs
100
what was the conclusion of foraging fruit flies experiment?
gene-environment interactions between behavioural and metabolic traits. Rovers genotypes exhibit greater changes across environments
101
what is genotype (G)?
the genetic makeup of an individual
102
what makes up an individual's behaviour or phenotypic behavioural value (P)?
its genotype (G) at all loci that affect the behaviour, the environment (E) it has experienced, and any interactions between them-more formally, gene-environment interactions (GxE)
103
What is the equation for phenotypic variation?
Vp=Vg + Ve
104
what is heritability (H2)?
the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is due to genetic variation
105
how can genetic variation be defined (Vg)
Vg = Va+Vd+Vi
106
why is additive genetic variation of primary importance for determining how a trait will respond to selection?
Because additive genetic variation effects are independent of other genes or the environment
107
why is narrow sense heritability used to examine the similarity of behaviour between parents and their offspring?
because each parent contributes a single allele per locus to offspring, the phenotypic similarity between offspring and parents depends on the additive effects of alleles
108
what does a higher slope value for a parent offspring regression analysis indicate?
a greater proportion of the phenotypic variance is additive variance, or variance passed from parents to offspring
109
what does a lower slope value indicate?
less of the phenotypic variance is due to additive genetic variance and so is not transmitted to the offspring, so more nonadditive and environmental variance is expressed among offspring
110
why are some consistent behaviours from individuals in captivity most likely from differences in their genotype?
because individuals in captivity are usually reared in similar conditions
111
what is innate behaviour and give an example
includes reflexes, involuntary and often immediate behavioural responses to an external stimulus, ex: blink reflex
112
is it true that if all individuals in a species exhibit innate, non learned behaviours, these behaviours must have a genetic basis, which also means they are heritable?
yes
113
define a fixed action pattern
a behaviour that is invariant, unlearned and once initiated, always completed and is genetically based
114
hat observation did tinbergen and lorenz make about afult graylag geese
when an egg displaced, they fixed it with their neck in a very fixed manner, examined the innate escape mechanism of chicks (assumed characteristic antipredator crouching position)
115
what are major genes?
individual genes that are responsible for the majority of phenotypic variation
116
define wild type
the typical form of an organism or gene in nature
117
what are minor genes?
individual genes that contribute
118
what is pleitropy?
a situation in which a single gene affects more than one phenotypic trait
119
why have major genes been a focus in behavioural genetics?
because they explain a great deal of the variation in observed behaviour
120
what are the two approaches to understand the relationship btn specific gene alleles and behaviour?
1) involved identifying specific gene alleles that directly affect behaviour
2) involves directly disabling a specific gene to understand how to influences behaviour
121
what are pheromones?
chemical produced by one individual that affect the behaviour of another.
122
what do proteins do and why're they important?
- can be structural components of cells, tissues and organs, function as enzymes by catalyzing chemical reactions, important component in cell signaling, functioning as neurotransmitters, hormones or receptors
- play key role in initiation physiological changes in cells and organ systems that affect the brain and resulting behaviours
123
define the knockout technique
a procedure in which a single gene is rendered nonfunctional
124
who are knocked out (KO) individuals?
individuals with an experimentally inactivated copy of a gene
125
what is required by the researcher to use the KO technique?
the location of a gene and its DNA sequence in order to alter the gene so it cannot function
126
what is AVP (the peptide hormone) responsible for in mice?
social behaviour (social recognition, pair bonding, parental behaviour) and behaviour under stressful conditions
127
what does the V1aR gene code for in mice?
AVPR1A
128
what are two characters mice have?
nocturnal - don't like bright light and thigmotaxis - preference for physical contact and avoidance of open areas
129
what info can QTL mapping provide?
number of genes involved, their location on chromosome - info can lead to identification of candidate genes, those suspected of contributing to a large amount of the phenotypic variation in a specific trait
130
explain the fragment-lenght polymorphism marker technique
genomic DNA is cut into pieces, or fragments. Known genetic markers are then attached to each piece to create a linkage map showing the position of markers relative to each other, but not their specific location on the chromosome
131
which studies show the association btn behavioural variation and genetic variation?
geese egg, wild type and mutant type fruit flies, fire ants, anxiety in mice, QTL mapping for aphid feeding behaviour
132
define gene expression
the process in which gene products are produced
133
explain environment inputs and resulting expression
genes and their products are expressed at different times and in different environmental conditions, depending on sensory inputs
134
what is one approach to identify environmental effects on behaviour?
to expose closely related individuals to different environments, if such individuals (w/similar genes) exhibit different behaviours, they are likely the result of environmental factors
135
explain the zebrafish study
- wanted to see how different developmental environments (DE) and behavioural test environments (TE) affect aggression
- collected eggs from siblings, divided them into two different DE (normoxic and hypoxic), raised until adulthood, tests fish in either normoxic or hypoxic TE after acclimation, measured aggression as time spent biting or nipping a mirror image
- results showed fish had higher level of aggression in environment they were raised in - indicated interaction btn developmental and behavioural environments
136
136
what is a common approach to study environmental influences on behaviour?
manipulating social environment - presence, type, and number of nearby individuals, and interactions with such individuals
137
explain the experiment regarding social environment of fruit flies
- wanted to determine how social environment of individuals affects gene expression - are there different gene expression for interactions w/different sexes?
- raised male flies and divided into control or treatment group - treatment exposed only to single female to court, control exposed to only rival male for set amount of time
- microarray analysis was performed to examine difference in gene expression and important sensory organs
- results show lots of genes expressed as socially responsive (for male and female interaction), some for only male interaction and very few for only female interaction
- concluded difference in number of genes expressed in dif social interactions and environmental conditions affect gene expression and resulting behaviour in male fruit flies
138
what are the two types of songs birds produce?
- simple, innate vocalizations AKA calls
- complex vocalizations AKA songs, used to defend a territory and attract a mate
139
what are the stages of song development for closed-ended learners in birds?
sensitive period, subsong converges, then crystallizations
140
what are some differences seen in birds with a tutor, w/o tutor and a recording for white-crowned sparrows?
w/tutor - sensitive period lasts longer, song matches those of wild birds
tape - produced simpler songs, only knew about half of songs compared to wild types
w/o tutor - failed to develop proper song
141
define reaction norm?
the range of different behavioural phenotypes observed from the single genotype raised across different environmental conditions
142
define phenotypic plasticity
this difference in phenotypes
143
what does phenotypic plasticity show?
trait is not fixed but can respond to variation in the environment
144
when is it said that there is a significant gene-environment interaction?
genotypes respond very differently in different environments
145
when is phenotypic variation in a population enhanced, and what 3 factors does it result from?
- when GEI exist, we observe variation among genotypes in their responses to environmental variation
- results from; Vg, Ve and Vgxe
146
what is the formula for phenotypic variation in a population?
Vp=Vg+Ve+Vgxe
147
what are the two behavioural phenotypes or variants for foraging behaviour in fruit flies?
rover and sitter
148
which experiments showed the influence of the environment via gene expression?
zebrafish aggression, social environment of fruit flies, social environment and birdsong development, rover and sitter foraging behaviour in fruit flies,
149
define genomics
study of the structure, function and evolution of genomes by examining gene expression
150
briefly explain how the technique of RNAseq is used
- can sequence and quantify the expression of all transcripts (mRNA) in specific tissues, then measure differentially expressed genes from individuals that exhibit different behaviours or that experience different environmental conditions
- allows researchers to proximate questions of behaviour
151
explain the genomics and alternative mating tactics in black-faced blennies
- wanted to examine if behavioural and morphological differences among territorial and sneaker males correlated w/different levels of gene expression
- in non-reproductive season, all adult males and females have camouflaged body colour, in reproductive season some males rapidly develop a black head and bright yellow body and defend territories, males that do not change colour become sneaker males - all males are physiologically capable of changing colour
- examined whole-genome gene expression differences btn both males and females
- results showed territorial males differentially expressed more genes than sneaker males
- found a greater difference in gene expression btn both male phenotypes than btn males and females
- territorial males expressed some genes related to synaptic plasticity, sneaker males differentially expressed genes associated w/differentialy and development
152
define personality
consistent relative differences in behaviour among individuals over time or across different environmental contexts
153
what are some animal personality traits that display variation?
boldness, overal level of activity, agressiveness
154
what are the two challenges developing larvae face in before they leave the stream?
1 - must maximize feeding time to shorten their development time before the streams and pools dry up
2 - must avoid predators like green sunfish - when predators present, have to seek shelter and reduces time spent feeding
155
explain the salamander larvae experiment?
- wanted to see how an individual's genotypes affects its activity levels in presence and absence of predator cues
- collected 4 sibling larvae, each experienced 2 treatments: high predation 'fish cue' treatment (water from an aquarium with sunfish present) and low predation 'no fish' treatment (tap water) added to larvae tank - noted larvae behaviour of being in or out of refuge area
- results showed larvae in no fish treatment spent more time out of refuge compared to fish cue larvae, was significant positive correlation in amnt of time each larva spent out of refuge - individuals and sibships that spent more time in the open in the control also spent more time in the open in the predator treatment
- concluded that genetic differences across sibships explain the consistent relative differences in activity level across treatments, indicating that salamanders exhibit behavioural personalities
156
what are some of the basics of the model that Max Wolf and colleagues developed?
- 2 personality traits: superficial and thorough exploratory behaviour
- lives 2 years and can reproduce each year
- only individuals that exhibit thorough exploration can find high quality resources but they only reproduce in Year 2 but will have higher reproductive success than individuals that only find low-quality resources
- included other parameters such as variation in aggressive behaviour
157
what was the general principle of Max Wolf's model?
individuals that invest most heavily in reproduction Year 2 should be behave in ways that enhance their probability of surviving to reproduce, while individuals that invest more heavily in reproduction Year 1 should behave in ways that enhance immediate resource acquisition
158
what was the trade off in Max Wolf's model?
animal personalities are tied to a trade off btn current and future reproduction
- effort allocated to current reproduction comes at the cost of future reproduction
159
why will both behaviours be maintained in a population in Max Wolf's model?
because both behaviours produce equal fitness
160
what were the results of the meta analysis to test Wolf's model?
on average, bold individuals (especially males) tended to have higher reproductive success than shy individuals but also tended to have a shorter lifespan, giving shyer individuals more opportunities to reproduce
- pattern suggests equal lifetime fitness for bold and shy individuals - consistent with model
161
explain the environmental effects on jumping spider personalities experiment
- examined how development in an enriched physical or social environment would result in greater adult exploratory behaviour
- females captures and reproduced, offspring divided into 3 categories: deprived (reared alone with no visual contact w/any conspecific), physically enriched (raised alone but rearing environment had lots of natural and artificial objects) and socially enriched (physically deprived but raised in sibling group of many individuals)
- tested exploratory behaviour in an open field - had refuge area, recorded latency to leave and percentage of arena visited after acclimatization in refuge area
- results showed individual raised in deprived environment had longer latency to leave refuge than individuals from physical and social environments, physically enriched individuals scored higher percentage of arena visited
- concluded that early experiences can influence the development of different behavioural types w/respect to exploratory behaviour in adults
LifeSci 2D03
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