Chapter 4

Question 1

3 Major types of learning

Answer 1

1. Classical conditioning (pavloinian)
2. Instrumental Operant learning
3. Social learning

Question 2

Classical Conditioning

- view of human

Answer 2

-ppl learn if rewarded or punished for behavior. Biological factors account for individual diffs in susceptibility to classical conditioning. Classical conditioning perspective presumes that human is an automaton and acts in monotonous routine manner w/out intelligence

Question 3

Operant Learning

• Skinner’s belief
• unlike cc

Answer 3

• learner must to something to environment in order to obtain reward or avoid punishment.
• Operant conditiong is learning to make or withhold a response because of its consequences; a fundamental learning process that is acquired or elimenated by the consequences that follow
• Skinner accepted classical conditionig but said we need additional type of conditiong to account more fully for all forms of behavior (in classical, dogs did not operate on enviros to receive rewards, food occurred regardless of what they did) Skinner called this “responding conditioning” and contrasted it with when a person does something to affect the situation
• Skinner established association btwn behavior and consequence

Question 4

Social Learning

• social learning theory of criminal behavior
• assumption
• criminal behavior and social learning
• modeling

Answer 4

more complex; involves watching others and organizing social experiences in the brain. Most representative of contemp psych. enables us to integrate knowledge from aspects of encironment and to consider bio and social environment

• Social Learning Theory suggests that to understand criminal behavior we must examine perceptions, thoughts, expectanceis, competencies, and values. Place emphasis on cognitive processes or internal processes called thinking and rembering.
• Social learning reflects theory’s strong assumption that we learn by observing ppl around us in social environment. Believe that social enviroment is most imp factor of acquisition of human behavior. Still accept reinforcment
• Criminal beahvior may be acquired thru association and observation but whether it is maintained will depend upon reinforment
• family members most imp source of modeling

Question 5

Behaviorism

• focuses on/ human behavior?
• History?
• Watson’s beliefs

Answer 5

• A perspective that focuses on observable,
  measurable behavior and argues that the social environment and learning are the key determinants of human
  behavior.
• began in 1913 with john B Watson and traced back to Aristotle. Science of behavior, we should eliminate the mind and all its vague concepts from sci consideration because they cannot be observed and measured. Fundamental goal to understand, predict, control human behavior.
  -Watson believed consciousness and mind do not exist, thought is just tiny movements of speech and apparatus
  -Watson influenced by classical conditioning; thougght psychology should focus on interplay btwn stimulus and response. Said all behavior was controlled by external environment

Question 6

Pavlov’s dogs

Answer 6

Pavlov’s Dogs: Meat was US, saliva was UR, bell became CS, saliva to bell became CR

Question 7

Cognitive processes

Answer 7

processes are those internal mental processes that enable us to imagine, gain knowledge, to reason and to evaluate info

Question 8

Stimulus & Response

Answer 8

• Stimulus is a person, object or event that elicits behavior
• Response is the elecited behavior

Question 9

Skinner’s theory

• like Watson(goalofpsych)
• Unlike Watson
• Skinner: Cognitive processes
• human nature

Answer 9

• Like Watson, Skinner believed prim goal of psych is prediction and control of behavior and enviromental external stimuli are primary determinants of all behavior
• Unlike Watson, skinner did not deny extinsesnce of mental events or conitive processes. However these stimuli are not needed by a science of behavior since products of mental activity can be expalined in ways that do not require allusion to unobserved mental states. Mental activity can be explained by observing what a person does
• Skinner said congnitve processes exist but don’t lead to science of behavior. In order to understand and modify antisocial behavior, thoughts, values, decsisons, and intentions of criminal mind irrelevant. Instead must focus on enviro stimuli, observable bevhavior and rewards
• believe all humans are born neutral

Question 10

1. Independent V
2. Dependent V
3. Variable

Answer 10

• Independent variables are the environmental stimuli
• Dependent variable are the behaviors they elicit
• Variable is any entity or behavior that can be measured

Question 11

Behaviorism as method of science

Answer 11

-Behaviorism posits that knowledge about human behavior can be best advanced if we use referents that have a physical basis and can be publicly observed (private events inside heads not seen so not subjected to rules of science)

Question 12

Behaviorism as perspective of human nature

• Skinner and Darwin
• Skinner’s 2 beliefs

Answer 12

• View that humans differ only in degree from animal ancesters. Behavior of humans follows same basic laws of all animals
• Like Darwin, Skinner saw no radical diffs between animals and humans (even human language, conceptual thinking nondistinctive)
• Skinner was a strong situationist
  1. Situationism is belief that all behavior is at the mercy of stimuli in the environemnt and individuals have virtually no control or self-determination; independent thinking and self control are myths; humans are like robots
  2. Reductionism is the procedure where complex behavior can be broken down into simple behavior; best understood by looking at stimulus response chains

Question 13

Reinforcement

• is?
  1. Positive
  2. Negative
  3. Punishment

Answer 13

• is what skinner refered to as rewards; anything that increases probablity of future responding
  1. is when we gain something as consequence of behavior
  2. is when we avoid unpleasant event/stimulusa as consequence of behavior
  3. Punishment is a painful stimuli as consequence of behavior

Question 14

Extinction

- Skinner’s belief

Answer 14

is when person recieves neither reinforcement or punishment

-Skinner said punishment is less effective way to eliminate behavior bc its temporary; instead use extinction

Question 15

Operant learning and crime

- skinner’s belief to reduce crime

Answer 15

-Skinner said if we wish to elminate crime we must change society thru behavioral engineering based on scientific concpetion of humans. Must make society learn early that positive reinforement will not occur if they transgree against rules (difficult bc reinforcment for antisocial behavior already occuring and not always obvious and maybe complex)

Question 16

Expectancy Theory

• is?
• theorist (best known for?) 2
• we develop?
• applying to criminal behavior
• led to?

Answer 16

-Expectance theory says that are performacne level is based on person’s expectaion that behaving in particular way will lead to a given outcome
-Julian rotter best know for attention to importance of expectations (cognitions) about the consequences (outcomes) of behavior including the reinforment that will be gained.
-Often we develop “generalized expectancies” that are stable and consistent across stitatuations
-Applying this to criminal behavior: ppl engage in crime when the expect to gain something in form of status, power, security, affection, material goods, living conditions
- Expectancy Value Theory (Rotter)
(Basic assumption of behavior not only size of reinforcement but the belief of what the behavior will be..how likely it is rewarded)

Question 17

Observational Learning

• models
• imitational learning
• new behaviors

Answer 17

AKA modeling developed by Bandura; person aquires ways of doing something by watching others do it, direct reinforcment unesccary. Much of our behavior is acquired by watching models.

• Models are those signif persons in social envior that give cues
• Imitational Learning AKA modeling or observational learning; behavior pattern exists even if we have never received direct reinforcment for it
• Once person decides to use new behaivor whether they perform or maintian it depend on situation and expectancies of potental gain

Question 18

Differential Association Reinforcement Theory

• proposed by (integrates?)
• DAR: development of deviant behavior
• 2 roles
• term

Answer 18

• Ronald Akers proposed a social learning theory of deviance that tries to integrate skinner behaviorism and social learning theory and Sutherlands differential association theory
• Differential association reinforment (DAR) is Aker’s theory that ppl learn to commit deviant acts thru interpersonal interactions with social enviro. Said deviant behavior is learned thru operant and then classical comes secondary. Strenghth of deviant behavior is function of amount, freq, probablity of reinforment the individual has had in past.
• role of social and nonsocial reinforcement important, social most important. Most of which are symbolic and verbal rewards for complying with group norms. Nonsocial reinforcment is physio factors or material acquisition
• Discriminative stimuli (normative definitions) are social signals transmitted by peer groups to indicate what behavior will be rewarded or punished
  Akers said 2 classes of discrim stimuli

Question 19

Aker’s theory applied to antisocial development

Answer 19

first group adopts own normative defintions about what is good and bad. Normative defs become internal cog guides to what will be reinforced by group.

Question 20

Sutherland’s theory

Answer 20

• Created differential association theory
• Sutherland believed criminal behavior is learned same as all behavior. Crucial factors are with who person assocs with, for how long, how freq, how meaninful assocs are, how early they occur. Intimate personal groups teach us defintions or normative meanings favorable or unfavorable to law violations. Person becomes delinquent bc of excess of favorable violation of law defintions. ( messages, not groups are the crucial parts) Deviant messages from group must outweigh conventional ones.

Question 21

Aker’s 2 classes of discriminative stimuli

Answer 21

1. Positive DS are signals (verbal and non) that communicate certain behaviors encouraged by the group. Follow principle of positive reinfrocement
2. Neutralizing/Justifying DS neutralizes the warnings communicated by society that certain behaviors are unlawful.
   - The more ppl define their behaviors as positve or justified the more they engage in it.

Question 22

Frustration-induced criminality

• theorist
• frustration

Answer 22

• Dollard
• When humans are prevented from responding in a way that prev gave rewards, their behavior becomes more energetic (irritable)
• Frustration is aroused responses resulting from aversive internal state; arises by interference by desired goal
• When behavior is blocked, arousal increases and person has drive to reduce it. Responses that lead to reduction may become reinforced

Question 23

Revised Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

• is?
• developed by?
• 2
• when is frustration most intense?
• delinquent children
• parents

Answer 23

• Leonard Berkowitz studied frustration and criminality
• revised frustration-aggression hypothesis (frustration creates predisposition for behavior; more freq frustrations increases likelihood of future frustrations)
• divided criminal persoalities:
  1. Socialized offender- products of learning, conditioning, modeling; offend bc they have learned to or expect rewards ( results in unmet social needs)
  2. Individual offender- product of long, intense frustrations resulting from unmet needs (based on individual needs)
• Berk said if person has high expectancy of reaching a goal frustration is particulary intense (act more intense if they percieve high level of control)
• The more intense and freq frustration in life more susceptible to subsequent frustration
• Found that delinquent children have been more deprived and frustrated in life
• Berk suggests parental neglect are frustrating situations that cause distructs of others. This distrust is carried in environemnt (chip on shoulder) and prevents forming of emotional attachments cuaseing a angry hostile person

Question 24

Frustration Induced Riots

- frustration induced theory & Larceny

Answer 24

-Frustartion induced theory helps explain behavior of looters; people already frustrated and act out when opportunity presented
-Frustration induced theory suggests that ppl who commit larceny under these situations have materalistic goals (wanting mid class goods) that they have not yet attained. Society has blocked the goals and perosn becomes impatient and frustrated.
-

Question 25

Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 25

a common tendency to discount the influence of situtation and expalin behavior by referring to personality (disposition) of the person.

Question 26

Self-serving Bias

Answer 26

are biases we ourselves engage in; we attribute good things about self to dispostional factors and bad things to events outside ourselves.

Question 27

Victimology - history that lead to it - 2 situational factors that are overlooked

Answer 27

- is study of causes, circumstances, charactersitiscs and social context of victim becoming a victim. Don’t blame vic but note certain factors that facilitate or provoke crime. (leaving car door unlocked) - Situations are rarely static; behavior influences them so some extent and they influence behavior. Reciprocal interaction has lead to victimology - There are 2 situational factors that are often overlooked but play role in antisocial behavior: obedience to authority and deindivduation

Question 28

Obedience to authority - crimes of obedience - example study

Answer 28

- is an act perfomred in response to orders from authority that is illegal or immoral by larger community - Milligram's shock study

Question 29

Milligram's Experiment - results - experts - interesting finding - obedient behavior - Milligram argued most imp factor

Answer 29

- found 2/3rds (65%) of subjects obeyed and shocked at max. - Experts did not predict this due to fundamental attribution error assuming obedient person is evil. - Found that as physical visual and auditory contact increased, person obyed less suggesting the more impersonal the weapon or situation the greater the violence. Found dissociation btwn word and action as subjects said they couldn’t go on but did - Milgrim suggested obedient behavior represents shift in role called “agentic state” where persons sees himself as agent for carrying out another’s wishes. No longer acting in own accord but for authority - Milgrim was convinced that situational factors override individual ones and found personality of individual irrelevant in behavior

Question 30

Deindividuation - history of theory - Zimbardo (d theory)

Answer 30

D theory is based on classic crowd theory of Gustave Le Bon. Refers to obervation that in crowds, many ppl lose sense of individuality, remove self imposed controls, and neutralize their internalized moral restraints. Assoc with feeling of not being accounatble when in a group. - said D involved feelings of reduced self-observation. D usually follows complex chain of events: Presence of others encourages feelings of anoymity. Individual then feels they lose identity and become part of group therefore they can no longer be singled out for their behavior. This feeling generates a loss of self- awareness, reduced concern over evaluation from others and narrowed focus of attention.

Question 31

Zimbardo's shock study - hypothesis (2 variables manipulated) - what also occurred during study? - results of d group - Zim said aggression is?

Answer 31

he manipulated two variables: feelings of anonymity and features about the victim. - Assigned females to deindividuation and identifable groups. Listened to recording about victim; some vics were warm and honest others were self-centered. Subs then allowed to give shocks. - Hypothesized deindividuation group would shock regardless of victims features and they would give longer shocks as exp progressed (affective proprioceptive feedback) also would occure where the act of shocking would be exciting and reinforcing. - Results showed that D group shocked twice as long and gave same shock regardless of vic features - Zim argued D aggression is not controlled by social environment; unrepsonsive to both situation and features of victim

Question 32

Standford prison experiment - results - conclusion - revealed importance of?

Answer 32

- Also demonstrated deindividuation - 1/3rd of gaurds abused their power - Had to terminate exp the 6th day - He concluded may ppl can be made to do almost anything when put into psychologically complling situations regardless of morals/ethics - Expereiment underscored imp of situational variables in determing behavior however there was still individual diffs

Question 33

Moral Disengagement - proposed by? to explain? - morals development/moral justification (term) - delinquents - in adolescents

Answer 33

-proposed by bandura to explain why ppl do immoral acts against their own judgement when order by higher authority or under social pressure -Ppl thru social learning internalize morals that bring self-worth when they are maintained and self-condementation when they are violated and act accordingly to their “moral agency”Bandura further states that before one can engage in behaviors that violate ones morals they must disengage their own moral sanctions to avoid condemnation ("acted for the greater good") -Bandura found that delinquents used methods of moral disengagment relying on moral justification and dehumanization of victims -show a decline with age accomp with decline in antisocial behavior

Question 34

Dehumanization

Answer 34

beleifs that strip ppl of human qualiteis or invests them with demonic qualities

Question 35

Deindividuation and crowd violence - crowd violence - 2 explanations for crowd violence - Le Bon - Diener

Answer 35

- Crowed violence usually studied under collective behavior which includes riots, gang rape, revolutions - Two explanations for antisocial behavior in crowds: 1)Frustration or 2)the lose of identity and adoption of behavior from group - Le Bon believed that those that are normally nonviolent are still capable of violence. The collective mind is dangeriously brutal and destructive. Claimed each person comes under the control of the reflexive spinal cord rather than the cortex -Diener: bc deindividuated ppl do not pay attention to their internal process (self reg) they depend on enviro cues for behavior direction. Thus when aggressive cues present they engage in violence. If perps attention directed toward suffering of vic rather than violence, brutality will stop

Question 36

Martin Reiser

Answer 36

1968 became 1st full-time police psychologist in U S • hired by Los Angeles Police Department • became instrumental in establishing police psychology as profession.

Question 37

Cognitive script

Answer 37

learned way of responding to situations stored from pervious experiences that guide us