1
Q
Who was Jean Piaget?
A
A psychologist who studied how kids learn and think; created a theory of cognitive development.
2
Q
What is Piaget’s theory called?
A
Constructivist theory – kids actively build their own understanding.
3
Q
What does dialectical mean in Piaget’s theory?
A
Learning happens when kids face new info that challenges what they already believe.
4
Q
What is assimilation?
A
Adding new info to what you already know because it fits.
5
Q
What is accommodation?
A
Changing what you know to fit new info that doesn’t fit.
6
Q
What is equilibration?
A
Where there is agreement between what children see in the world and the reality that exists in their minds
7
Q
What is disequilibration?
A
what exists in the outside world is not represented in the created cognitive structures—cognitive structures must be modified through assimilation or accommodation so that greater agreement occurs and equilibration is maintained.
8
Q
What’s the main way infants learn in the sensorimotor stage?
A
Through their senses and actions
9
Q
What is object permanence?
A
Knowing something exists even when you can’t see it. (It is only around the age of nine months that infants start to realize that items exist even when they cannot be seen.)
10
Q
SENSORIMOTOR SUBSTAGES
Q: 0–1 month – How do babies learn?
A
Reflexes (e.g., sucking)
11
Q
Q: 1–4 months – What are babies doing?
A
A: Primary circular reactions (repeating actions on their own body)
12
Q
Q: 4–8 months – What changes?
A
A: Secondary circular reactions (repeating actions on objects)
13
Q
Q: 8–12 months – What new skill?
A
A: Combine actions to reach a goal; object permanence begins
14
Q
Q: 12–18 months – What do kids act like?
A
A: “Little scientists” – they try things out (tertiary circular reactions)
15
Q
Q: 18–24 months – New ability?
A
A: Mental representation – remembering and copying past actions
16
Q
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2–7 years)
Q: Main skills gained in this stage?
A
A: Symbolic thinking, language use, and pretend play
17
Q
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2–7 years)
Q: What is animism?
A
A: Thinking objects are alive (e.g., “my teddy bear is sad”)
18
Q
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2–7 years)
Q: What is egocentrism?
A
A: Can’t see other people’s points of view
19
Q
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2–7 years)
Q: Do kids in this stage understand conservation?
A
A: No – they don’t get that objects stay the same even if they look different
20
Q
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7–11 years)
Q: What can kids do in this stage?
A
A: Think logically about real things, solve conservation tasks
21
Q
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7–11 years)
Q: What is identity (in conservation)?
A
A: Things stay the same if nothing is added or taken away
22
Q
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7–11 years)
Q: What is compensation?
A
A: Changes cancel each other out (e.g., tall skinny glass vs short wide one)
23
Q
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7–11 years)
Q: What is inversion?
A
A: You can reverse a change (e.g., roll the clay back into a ball)
24
Q
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12+ years)
Q: What changes in this final stage?
A
A: Ability to think abstractly and about hypothetical problems
25
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12+ years)
Q: Do all people reach this stage?
A: No – some may never fully develop it
26
what are all the names of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
0 to 2 years
Preoperational
2 to 7 years
Concrete operational
7 to 11 years
Formal operational
12 years and up
27
can the stages of cognitive development go in different order?
no the stages must go in order
28
Around the age of 18 months children develop an increased ability to...?
hold an image in their minds beyond the immediate experience
29
in the preoperative stage children have difficulty with conservation what does this mean?
Conservation means understanding that something stays the same even if it looks different.
You show a child two cups with the same amount of juice.
Then you pour the juice from one cup into a taller, thinner glass.
Now the child thinks the taller glass has more juice—even though you didn’t add or take any away.
Why? Because they only focus on how it looks, not on logic or quantity.
30
Does everyone reach the formal operations stage?
no there are many people who have not reached this stage who are healthy and happy
31
What is object performance?
. the understanding that objects continue to exist even when you can’t see, hear, or touch them.
32
primary vs secondary circular reactions
both repeated actions that babies use to learn but primary is repeated actions with their own body and secondary is items outside their own bodies (dropping a toy on the ground repeatedly)
33
34
around the age of 18 months children develop an increased ability to..?
hold an image in their minds (sensory motor stage)
35
primary vs secondary circular reactions
primary circular reactions, where they engage in repeated actions on their own bodies. (sucking finger repeatedly)
secondary circular reactions—repeated actions on objects outside of their own bodies. (dropping a toy repeatedly)
36
what are tertiary circular reactions?
Tertiary circular reactions happen when toddlers act like little scientists—they try new things on purpose just to see what will happen.
37
What is the principle of identity?
Knowing that nothing was added or taken away, so the amount is still the same, even if it looks different.
🧱 Example: A ball of clay is still the same amount, even if it’s flattened.
38
What is the principle of compensation?
Understanding that one change is balanced by another.
🥤 Example: A tall, skinny glass looks fuller, but it’s just because it’s narrow—not because it holds more.
39
What is the principle of inversion (reversibility)?
Realizing that a change can be reversed.
Example: Coins spread out can be moved back together—the number hasn’t changed.
40
What does it mean when parents "scaffold" a child's learning?
Scaffolding means giving support to help a child learn something difficult. As the child improves, the support is slowly taken away so they can do it independently.
🧠 Example: A parent helps a child do a puzzle by showing how to start, then lets the child finish on their own.
41
what is the zone of proximal development?
distance between what a child can accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with some assistance.
42
name of two important figures regrading attachment styles
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
42
Lev Vygotsky created what theory?
Sociocultural Theory, which says children learn best through social interaction and cultural experiences.
43
What did Harry Harlow’s monkey experiment show?
🐒 Baby monkeys chose a soft cloth mother over a wire mother that gave milk.
44
What is imprinting, and what did Konrad Lorenz discover about it?
Imprinting is when baby animals (like geese) form a strong attachment to the first moving thing they see after birth.
🐣 Lorenz found that goslings followed him if he was the first thing they saw, showing that early contact is key to bonding.
45
what is the strange situation paradigm?
A research method by Mary Ainsworth to study infant attachment.
👶 It observes how babies react to separation and reunion with their caregiver to identify their attachment style.
46
name the four types of attachment styles
Secure attachment
Insecure-resistant attachment
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Disorganized attachment
47
Secure attachment
Adjusts calmly to the parent leaving and
returning
48
Insecure-resistant attachment
Holds onto parent to prevent separation
49
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Shows little interest when the parent leaves or
reappears
50
Disorganized attachment
Wants to be close to but also away from parent
51
What is the Heinz dilemma, and how did Lawrence Kohlberg use it?
The Heinz dilemma is a moral story used by Kohlberg to study how people reason about right and wrong.
🧠 In the story, Heinz must decide whether to steal a drug to save his dying wife or follow the law and not steal it.
52
what are the three stages of morality? (Lawrence kohlberg)
1. Preconventional Morality (young children)
2. Conventional Morality (older kids, teens, most adults)
3. Postconventional Morality (some adults)
53
Preconventional Morality
Good and bad based on reciprocity and
punishment
54
Conventional morality
Morals based on societal pressures
55
Post-conventional morality
Morals based on internal principles
irrespective of societal expectations
56
what brain areas undergoes significant development in adolescence and beyond?
The prefrontal cortex
57
in the Formal operational stage (age 12+) people are able to think of...
Able to think of hypothetical events
58
Adolescents tend to engage in risk-
taking because...?
the prefrontal cortex is not
fully developed until the mid 20s
59
the development of the prefrontal cortex contributes to the cognitive processes called?
Executive Functions (which help with impulse control)
60
what is adolescent egocentrism?
Adolescents tend to feel as if everyone is
watching
61
what does personal fable mean?
Adolescents think of themselves as unique and invulnerable to risky situations
62
Name the different types of identities
1. Foreclosed identity
2. Identity diffusion
3. Psychosocial moratorium
4. Identity achievement
63
Foreclosed identity
Low identity exploration; prematurely deciding on one’s
identity
(The person commits to an identity without exploring options
Often shaped by parents or society's expectations)
64
Identity diffusion
Low identity exploration; unable to make any decision’s
about one’s identity
(Not exploring or deciding on any identity)
65
Psychosocial moratorium
High exploration; Identity crisis; unable to make a choice
regarding one’s identity
(Actively exploring different paths, but no commitment yet)
66
Identity achievement
High exploration and commitment to one’s identity
(Has explored options and made a clear commitment)
67
what functions decline with age?
fluid intelligence (such as speed of processing and reasoning)
68
what functions can be maintained or strengthened?
Crystallized intelligence (such as vocabulary, general knowledge, and how to solve familiar problems.)
69
Is dementia the 'norm' in typical aging?
nope.
70
Alzheimer’s disease is a specific type of ....?
dementia
71
what are the adult attachment styles
Secure or autonomous attachment
Anxious or preoccupied attachment
Dismissive or avoidant attachment
72
Secure or autonomous attachment
Enjoys emotional closeness and
independence
73
Anxious or preoccupied attachment
Wants constant intimacy and avoids
independence
74
Dismissive or avoidant attachment
Prefers independence and avoids
relationships
75
T or F?
Marital satisfaction generally decreases after the birth of a child
T
76
what is Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST)
-Focus on building close relationships
-Focus on emotion-related goals
-Increased capacity for emotion regulation
and well-being
-Avoid negatively arousing stimuli and focus
on maintaining satisfying relationships
77
3 Major milestones in adulthood
-marriage
-parenthood
-retirement
78
What is Erikson's Stage One: Trust vs. Mistrust?
From birth to 18 months, babies learn whether the world is safe and reliable.
Trust develops when caregivers consistently meet the baby's needs with love and care.
Mistrust forms if care is inconsistent or neglectful.
79
What is the complementary ritualization in Stage One?
Numinous — The baby sees the mother as amazing and awesome.
This is shown through the mother's voice, facial expressions, and touch.
80
What is the compensatory ritual in Stage One?
Idolism — The baby may form an unrealistic, perfect image of the mother.
This is a kind of idealization that helps the baby feel secure, even if care is not always perfect.
81
What is Erikson’s Stage Two: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt?
From 18 months to 4 years, children learn to do things on their own, like potty training.
If supported, they feel confident (autonomy).
If criticized or overly controlled, they may feel shame or doubt themselves.
82
What is the complementary ritualization in stage 2?
Judiciousness — The ability of the self to discriminate
between good and evil
* The child begins to take responsibility for
his actions
83
What is the compensatory ritual in stage 2?
Legalism — If the stage doesn’t go well, the child may grow up thinking rules must always be followed no matter what (too strict or moralistic).
84
Initiative vs. Guilt what age? what happens?
Ages 4 to 6 — Children start taking initiative, making plans, asking questions, and imagining new things.
85
What is the ego crisis in stage 3 mean?
Children learn to balance taking initiative (starting things on their own) with the guilt they might feel when things go wrong or when they overstep.
86
What virtue develops in stage 3?
Purpose and Courage — The child gains the bravery to try new things and set meaningful goals.
87
What is the complementary ritualization in stage 3?
Authenticity — The child learns to be true to themselves and their ideas.
88
What is the compensatory ritual in stage 3?
Impersonation — If the child doesn’t feel confident, they may copy others or fake who they are (not develop their real self).
89
What is Erikson’s Stage Four called, and what age does it cover?
Industry vs. Inferiority
Ages 6 to adolescence — When children start learning how to work hard and be productive, especially in school.
90
What is the complementary ritualization in stage 4?
Formalization — Learning to work within rules, systems, and structure (like school and chores), and valuing methodical work.
91
What is the compensatory ritual in stage 4?
Formalism — Focusing too much on rules and routines and forgetting why the work matters (e.g., caring more about grades than learning).
Forget the purpose of methodical
performance in favor of efficiency
92
What is Erikson’s Stage Five called?
Identity vs. Role Confusion — This stage is about figuring out who you are and what you believe in, especially during teenage years.
93
What is the complementary ritualization stage 5?
Commitment to an ideology — Choosing a set of values, beliefs (like religious, political, or social), and committing to them meaningfully.
94
What is the compensatory ritual in stage 5?
Totalism — Overcommitting to one rigid belief system without thinking critically or being open to other ideas (e.g., following a group blindly).
95
What is Erikson’s Stage Six called?
Intimacy vs. Isolation — It’s about forming close relationships and sharing your life with others.
96
What is the complementary ritualization of stage 6
Affiliation — Feeling of complementarity
Affiliation to the identities of those with
whom life is shared
97
What is the compensatory ritual of stage 6
Elitism —A feeling of being complete with and
through the other
* Narcissism shared with one or more people,
leading to exclusion and belonging to an
exclusive group
98
What is stage 7 of Erikson’s
Generativity vs. Stagnation- Caring about the next generation
99
Complementary ritualization in stage 7
Generationalism
* Variety of adult ritualizations such as parenting or teaching
100
Compensatory ritualism in stage 7
Authoritarianism
* Using power for selfish purposes
101
What is stage 8 of Erikson's
Integrity vs. Despair — reflecting on life with either satisfaction or regret.
102
What is "sapientism"?
Faking wisdom — acting like you know everything instead of being genuinely reflective.
103
What is "integralism" in this stage?
The ability to reflect on and accept your whole life, integrating all its stages.
104
What is longitudinal research in developmental psychology?
A research method that studies the same group of people over a long period of time to see how they change.
105
What is cross-sectional research in developmental psychology?
A research method that studies people of different ages at one point in time to compare age-related differences.
106
EXAM QUESTION
what is midlife crisis ? when does this occur?
stage where people realize the pressures of age, question their own achievements, think excessively about the future and have doubts about thier plans
occurs around 40s and early 60s
many try to stay young (do things that are impulsive)
107
What is the high amplitude sucking paradigm?
Babies are given a pacifier and researchers watch how much they suck.
If they suck more when a sound is played, it means they like it or notice it.
108
What is novelty preference
the preference that infants have in looking at new information longer than old
109
What is habituation paradigm
A way to study how babies learn and remember.
👶 Babies are shown the same thing over and over until they get bored (look less or stop reacting).
🎉 Then a new thing is shown—if the baby reacts again, it means they noticed the difference and remember the first one.
110
Violation of expectation paradigms
A method used to study what babies understand about the world.
👀 Babies look longer at things that surprise them or don’t match what they expect.
🎬 Example: If a toy disappears without a reason, and the baby stares longer, it shows they knew something strange happened!
111
what is theory of mind and how was it assessed?
Theory of Mind is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that may be different from yours.
identified using use of false belief paradigms
112
example of a use of false belief paradigms
a researcher might show a child a box of Band-Aids and ask the child what he thinks is inside of the box. Children commonly report that they believe Band-Aids are in the box, but the researcher opens the box and reveals unexpected contents, like candies.
113
how to test the recall of memory (what paradigm is used?)
the elicited imitation paradigm
114
the elicited imitation paradigm
An adult performs a simple sequence of actions with objects (e.g., stack rings, push a button), then later asks the child to copy the actions after a delay.
If the child remembers and imitates, it shows evidence of learning and memory.
