What is learning?
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice.
Who discovered classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov.
Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Define unconditioned response (UCR).
A natural, involuntary response to the UCS.
Define conditioned stimulus (CS).
A previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, triggers a learned response.
Define conditioned response (CR).
A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
What are the key processes in classical conditioning?
Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, higher-order conditioning.
What did John B. Watson demonstrate with Little Albert?
That emotional responses can be classically conditioned.
What is operant conditioning?
Learning based on consequences such as reinforcement and punishment.
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated.
What is reinforcement?
Any consequence that strengthens a behavior.
Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive adds something pleasant; negative removes something unpleasant.
What is punishment?
A consequence that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Name the four schedules of reinforcement.
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval.
Which reinforcement schedule produces the strongest response?
Variable ratio (e.g., gambling).
What is shaping?
teaching something step by step by praising small improvements until the whole skill is learned.
What is behavior modification?
a technique used to change a person’s or animal’s behavior by using rewards and consequences to encourage good behaviors and reduce unwanted ones.
What is latent learning?
Learning that remains hidden until it is needed (Tolman).
What is insight learning?
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution (Köhler).
What is learned helplessness?
Failure to act due to exposure to uncontrollable events (Seligman).
What is observational learning?
Learning by observing others (Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
Name the four elements of observational learning.
Attention, memory, imitation, desire (motivation).
What are the three processes of memory?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
What is encoding?
Converting sensory input into a usable form for storage.
