Three important elements of group structure:
(1) Norms, (2) Roles, and (3) Networks of connections
among the members.
Norms
implicit, self-generating, and stable standards to regulate behavior of group members. Six
sorts of norms:
1. Prescriptive norms = set the standards for expected group behavior and which will be
rewarded.
2. Proscriptive norms = identify behaviors that should not be performed and which will be
punished.
3. Descriptive norms = define what most people do, feel, or think in the group.
4. Injunctive norms = describe how people must behave, feel, and think in a given situation.
5. Folkway = cultural standards that define behavior inside a culture (e.g., grammar,
vocabulary, clothing style, and behavior in public settings).
6. Mores = moral/societal standards of how to behave in certain situations; what is right and
what is wrong.
- Norms are internalized standards; individuals feel obligated to obtain them and react
negatively when they violate them.
Pluralistic ignorance
= group members do not agree with the group norm, but do not admit it because they think they are the only one with this vision, which causes them to
keep conforming to the group norm.
Roles
specify the types of behaviors that are expected of individuals who occupy particular
positions within the group.
- Role differentiation = an increase in the number of roles in a group, accompanied by a
gradual decrease in the scope of these roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined
and specialized.
Two kind of roles:
1. Task roles = roles that contain behavior that focus on the accomplishment of tasks and activities (e.g., initiating structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting goals).
- Relational roles = roles that contain behavior that improve the nature and quality of
interpersonal relations among members (e.g., showing concern, reducing conflict,
and enhancing feelings of satisfaction and trust).
Functional role theories
emphasize the functional use of roles, including task roles, relationship roles, and individualistic roles.
Interactionist role theories
roles are subdivided by: (1) role enactment = displaying certain behaviors as part of one’s role in the group, and (2) role sending = the transmission of one’s
expectations about what kinds of behaviors are expected of people who occupy particular
roles (by impression management).
Dynamic role theories
Moxnes: some roles fit more with group members and some roles fit more with group tasks. Relational responsibilities are associated with the role of the
“mother” and task responsibilities associated with that of the “father”.
Moreland & Levine: group socialization
a pattern of change in the relation between an
individual and the group. The theory considers five sorts of roles; prospective member, new
member, full member, marginal member, and former member
role ambiguity
unclear expectations about the tasks of an individual with a certain role in the group.
Role conflict
when different demands are in conflict with each other. Two kinds:
- Interrole conflict = when a member occupies two more roles that call for
incompatible behaviors. > Roles will be in conflict with each other. - Intrarole conflict = when the demands of a single role are contradictory.
Role fit
the degree of congruence between the demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values, skills, and other characteristics of the individual who occupies the role.
Networks
intermember relations in a group
Social network analysis (SNA)
offers researchers the means to describe a group’s structure
both visually and quantitatively. It contains information of every member of the network
(egocentric network) and the group as a whole (sociocentric network).
- Several important egocentric indexes:
1. Degree of centrality = how many connections does a certain member have.
2. Outdegree centrality = number of connections somebody establishes with
other people, and indegree centrality = number of connections someone
receives of other people.
3. Betweenness = ties to more distant actors in the network, and closeness =
the distance to all other members of the group in terms of connections. - Several important sociocentric indexes:
1. Density = determined by how many people are linked to one another out of
the possible number of links.
2. Size = number of individuals in the network.
3. Cliques = clusters of subgroups in larger networks.
4. Holes = disconnections in a network that separate clusters/cliques
Status differentiation
the slow growth of group members toward a position with more authority, accompanied by the decrease of authority of other members.
Sociometric differentiation
the development of stronger and more positive interpersonal ties between some members of the group, accompanied by decreases in the quality of
relations between other members of the group.
- Heider: balance theory = relationships can be either balanced (integrated units with
elements that fit together without stress) or unbalanced (inconsistent units with
elements that conflict one another). > A group is balanced when; (1) All relations
inside the group are positive, or (2) if there are equal amounts of negative and
positive relations in a group.
Communication network
patterns of information transmission and exchange that describe who communicates most frequently and to what extent with whom.
Several ways:
1. Wheel network = all group members communicate with only one person.
2. Comcon network = all members communicate with all members.
3. Chain network = communication flows from one person to the next person in row.
4. Circle network = chain network in the form of a circle.
5. Pinwheel network = circle in which information flows in one direction (only network
without bidirectional information stream).
Information saturation
the harder a task becomes, the harder it is for the central position in the network to execute his task; he can’t handle all the information anymore.
Bales: Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)
structure is based on three
dimensions:
- Up versus down (dominance versus submissiveness) = is the group member active,
extraverted, and talkative or is he rather passive and quiet? - Positive versus negative (friendliness versus unfriendliness) = is the group member, warm,
open, and positive or is he rather negative and irritated? - Forward versus backward (acceptance or nonacceptance of authority) = is the group
member analytic and goal-oriented or is he rather emotional and deviate?
