1
Q
Case of H.M
A
- Little boy H.M was hit by bicycle, resulted in seizures.
- to fix seizures, did brain surgery and removed temporal lobe on both sides
- resulted in loss of hippocampus and amygdala
- memories prior to surgery remained, but couldn’t form new ones
- unable to form memories of events in life, but could learn new motor skills
- allowed people to understand that different parts of the brain have different functions
- help psychologists see the distinction between implicit and explicit memory
2
Q
H.M and star
A
- had to trace a star while looking at its outline in mirror
- he had no recollection of doing it even though he was trained for days
- but brain remembered it because he got better
- shows that memory can operate outside of conscious awareness
3
Q
Memory
A
the ability to store and use information
4
Q
Retrospective Memory
A
Memory for the past
5
Q
Prospective Memory
A
Memory for the future
prefrontal lobes involved
-ex- mental shopping list
6
Q
What are the two types of memory
A
Explicit and Implicit
7
Q
Explicit Memory
A
-the conscious recall of facts and events
-declarative memory
-requires awareness
“conscious”
8
Q
Implicit Memory
A
-when we remember something but don’t consciously know that we remember it
-made up of knowledge from previous experience
-non-declarative memory
-does not require awareness
-“unconscious”
ex-reading
9
Q
What are the three memory stores
A
1- Sensory memory
2- Short-term memory
3- Long term memory
10
Q
Sensory memory
A
the part of memory that holds sensory info for a very brief period of time, a few seconds or less
-memory you get when you’re exposed to a stimulus
-large capacity, short duration
ex- visual and auditory memory
11
Q
Iconic Memory
A
a brief record of a visual scene
12
Q
Echoic memory
A
short term retention of sounds
13
Q
Testing Iconic and echoic memory
A
- is difficult because bringing attention to it increases the chances of it being rehearsed and stored in short term memory
- letters flash, followed by a delay and a tone that represents a different row for the participant to recall
- short delays-> perfect recall
- delay more than 300 milliseconds-> accuracy drops
- suggests we have the ability to hold an entire scene in mind, but only for a few seconds
14
Q
What store (Iconic or echoic) has a longer duration
A
echoic
-significantly longer by seconds
-test:
listen to 2 different sounds and perform a test that requires careful listening to one.
“ignored” sounds cannot be processed by short term memory stores-> sensory memory
delay between ignored sounds and recall is greater than 5 seconds, memory declines dramatically
15
Q
Short term memory
A
- temporarily stores limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten
- info stays for 2-30 seconds
- longer than sensory memory
- not permanent
- emphasizes duration
16
Q
Long term memory
A
- the part of memory that has the capacity to store a lot of information for as little as 30 seconds to as long as a lifetime
- where memories of first pet, how to read are
17
Q
Three stage model of Memory
A
classification of the three memory stores based on how long the memories last
- explains explicit memory
- fails to explain long term implicit memory and events after encoding into long term memory
18
Q
Explain the three stage model of memory
A
- memory formation starts with sensory input
- if you don’t pay attention to it, sensation vanishes and info is lost
- Pay attention to it-> sensation becomes short term memory
- Once sensation enters short term memory, it either transitions to long term memory in a short period of time or it disappears
- if we rehearse the information actively, the sensation becomes long term memory
19
Q
Rehearsal
A
the process of repeatedly reciting material so it enters long term memory
20
Q
Encoding
A
the process by which we attend to, take in, and process new information
21
Q
Retrieval
A
the recovery of information stored in memory
22
Q
Short term memory capacity
A
the number of items that can be held in short-term memory
- between 4 and 9 units of info
- everyones is different
23
Q
Magic number 7 +/- 2
A
the average memory capacity and degree of variation between individuals
24
Q
Experiment that demonstrates short term memory is so short
A
- given list of 3 letter combos and asked to recall after different delay periods
- prevented from rehearsal
- delay bigger than 6 seconds, recall less than half of the items
- delay of 18 seconds, 10% of items were correctly recalled
25
Working memory
- short term memory + attention
- part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem
- emphasizes the function of short term memory
- limited capacity, short duration
- thinking in the moment
- can be transferred to long term memory if rehearsed ->otherwise lost
26
Chunking
the process of breaking down a list of items to be remembered into smaller set of meaningful units
- best way to overcome limitations of working memory
- 09112001
- 09-112-001
27
What does the three stage memory model fail to do
fails to explain how we are able to carry out complicated tasks
28
Testing the limits of working memory
- participants complete 2 tasks simultaneously: a primary memory task (memorizing lists) and a secondary task (rehearsing sequence of #'s)
- found only modest memory errors when heavily loaded with cognitive demands
29
Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
Working memory is made up of three temporary storage systems:
1) Phonological- sounds and language
2) Visuospatial- images and spatial relations
3) Episodic Buffer- connects the two storage systems
-interacts with long term memory
-provides temporary storage for specific events
these three stores are managed by the central executive
30
Central executive
- the attentional control system that manages the three stores
- focuses and shifts attention
- decides which sensations deserve our attention and which ones don't
- also communicates with long-term memory
31
What are the three processes that Baddeley proposed working memory operates through
1) ATTENDING to a stimulus (memory + attention), carried out by central executive that focuses on a specific aspect of a stimulus
2) STORING info about the stimulus
3) REHEARSING the stored info
32
Describe Baddeleys Model
- Once info is taken in and we attend to it, it is sent to a temporary store:
- > the phonological loop if it is sound or language. Assists the central executive by providing 30 seconds of storage for limited words/digits
- > the visuospatial sketch pad if it is visual or spatial info. Briefly provides storage for images (3 or 4).
- > the episodic buffer if it is a specific event or experience that involves multi sensory memory. Critical for memory that will become long term memory
Information that enters either of these memory stores lasts only seconds before it fades- unless we attend to it and process it deeply
33
Operation of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad operate independently
- working on a verbal task does not affect performance of visual task at the same time
- brain damage patient studies show that they loop and sketch pad use different parts of the brain since one system can be impaired while the other is unaffected
34
How can we use working memory
- can mean attending to sensory info and forming a long term memory
- can mean retrieving prior long term memories
35
The Serial Position Effect
when learning a list, people are better at recalling things at the beginning and end, forgetting the middle
36
Primacy effect
remembering things at the beginning of the list
-items in long term memory
explanation: items at beginning of list are quickly rehearsed and transferred to long term memory
37
Recency effect
remembering things at the end of the list
-items in working memory
explanation: items at the end are still being held in working memory-> easily accessible
- if rehearsal is prevented after all words have been presented, performance for last two words on list is no better than that for middle. recall for items at beginning of list unaffected
38
Why can't you remember the things in the middle
Items in the middle:
- haven't been moved to long term memory -> less likely to be recalled
- cant be rehearsed as more items added to the list
39
Neuroimaging data
shows that early and late items activate different brain regions during recall
-suggests that they recruit different processes
40
Long- term memory
any information that is stored for at least 30-40 seconds and up to a lifetime
- unlimited capacity
- different types
41
Why doesn't the 3 stage model explain long-term implicit memories
- places emphasis on two processes that are not engaged in implicit tasks
- no attention or rehearsal
42
Tests for Long term memory
Explicit and implicit tests
| -if done properly, people don't know they're performing a memory task
43
Explicit tests
participants asked to REMEMBER something
44
Implicit tests
participants asked to DO something
45
Examples of Implicit memory
Procedural memory and priming
46
Procedural memory
knowledge we hold for any behaviour or physical skill we learn
- occurs in striatum
- ex: ride a bike, drive a car, tie a shoe
47
Priming
occurs when recall is improved by earlier exposure to same or similar stimuli
-occurs in cortex
48
One lab of priming
amnesia group compared to people without memory problems on a word learning task
- when asked to recall words, people in amnesia group had less recall
- when given first 3 letters of the word, the amnesia group performed as well as normal group
- amnesia group had no conscious recollection of having seen the words before
*people with long term memory damage show a remarkable ability to recall words if they have been primed**
49
Two kinds of explicit memory
1) Semantic memory
| 2) Episodic memory
50
Semantic memory
memory for facts and knowledge
ex-what we learn in school
general knowledge
51
Episodic memory
memory that recalls experiences we've had
| -more personal
52
Stages of long term memory
1) Encoding
2) Consolidation
3) Storage
4) Retrieval
53
Encoding
- 1st stage in long term memory
- attention is required
- different in implicit and explicit memory
```
explicit tasks (free recall) : visual images are encoded more easily than verbal descriptions
implicit tasks (priming) : verbal descriptions encoded more easily than visual images
```
54
mnemonic device
-helps people remember information
| ex- rhyming, chunking, rehearsal, imagery, acronyms
55
mnemonist
someone who displays extraordinary memory skills
56
Dual encoding theory
visual and verbal information are processed and stored independently by the brain
57
Consolidation
- the 2nd stage of long term memory
- process of establishing/solidifying a memory
- resistant to distraction, interference, and decay
- sleep important
58
Storage
- the 3rd stage in long term memory
| - retention of memory over time
59
Retrieval
- last stage in long term memory
- requires working memory
- remembering
60
What are the three ways we organize and store memories
1) Hierarchies
2) Schemas
3) Associative Network
61
Hierarchies
a way of organizing related pieces of information from the most general they have in common to the most specific
ex- song titles
-logical hierarchy improved recall compared to illogicak
62
Schemas
mental frameworks
- based upon experiences with people, objects, or events
- act as a filter
63
Schema study at bar
gave memory test for bar beverages to experienced waiters, beginner waiters, and non waiters
-experienced waiters did the best because they had a richer schema
64
What do hierarchies and schema bring?
they bring order and organization
65
association
binds concepts together
- linked by degree of closeness
- links between nodes
66
Associative network
a chain of associations between related concepts
67
node
each concept in a network
68
When people think of a concept and its node is activated
they are more likely to make an association to a nearby concept or node
ex- fire engine, has associations to vehicles and colours
69
Neural networks
computer models that imitate the way neutrons communicate with each other
- have information processing nodes, aren't single concepts (like colour or vehicle)
- the more nodes in a neural network communicate with each other, the stronger the link between nodes
70
What are the two kinds of encoding processing
1) Automatic processing
| 2) Effortful processing
71
Automatic processing
encoding of information with little effort or conscious attention
ex- episodic memory, implicit memories, priming, remembering what you ate for breakfast
72
Effortful processing
encoding of info that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort
-involves rehearsal of info
73
Effect of advancing age on encoding processing
Advancing age lessens recall for events and experiences that require effortful processing but not automatic processing
74
What are the levels of processing
1) Structural processing
2) Phonemic processing
3) Semantic processing
*the more deeply you encode information, the better recall
75
Structural processing
shallowest level of processing
-worst recall
-to study, researchers say focus on structure of word
ex- is it capitalized
76
Phonemic processing
mid-level processing
-mid recall
-researchers say focus on sound of word
ex- does it rhyme with ___
77
Semantic processing
deepest level of processing
-best recall
-researchers say focus on meaning of word
ex- would the word fit the sentence ___??
78
Best recall
encoded deeply
79
Worst recall
not encoded deeply
80
Study that studied recall by repeating words once and twice
- people presented word list twice, recall is stronger
- not always the case for implicit memory tests
***the depth of encoding does not enhance all types of memory***
Explicit tasks that require effortful processing-> more deeply its encoded-> the better you will remember it
81
Encoding specificity principle
the idea that memory is the strongest when the conditions at retrieval match those during encoding
-similarity of encoding and retrieval environments -> better recall
82
Transfer- appropriate processing
recall is best if the cognitive processes used during encoding are the same as those for retrieval
-focuses less on memory environment, more on similarity of thought processes
83
Both theories have what in common?
Encoding specificity principle and transfer appropriate processing both predict the more similar the conditions during encoding and retrieval, the better the retrieval will be
84
Study when people shown pics or words of common objects, asked to categorize them
recognition was better for the words they previously saw as words, compared to words they previously saw as pictures
85
Context- dependent memory
support of encoding by the context in which information is presented
- used scuba divers to learn lists of words underwater or on land and tested their recall in different environments
- (water/water) (land/land) (land/water) (water/land)
- highest recall was when environments were matched
studying environments should match testing environments
86
Memories of our personal experiences are processed...
automatically
87
Emotional memories are ____ to recall than factual ones. Why?
easier
| emotions help us encode and retrieve memories without effortful processing
88
Study on Emotional memory:
9 women, showed pics with emotional content and neutral content
a year later, they saw the same pictures, both times, brains were scanned
- year later, women showed better recognition of the pictures with emotional content than neutral content
- scans showed enhanced brain activity when saw emotional, remembered items
*same brain regions were active during encoding and retrieval of emotional stimuli -> emotion helped both stages of memory process*
89
autobiographical memory
memories from lifespan
| -positive bias in recall, more likely to recall positive memories over negative
90
Negative emotions can result in ____
memory impairement
- refugees who experiences emotional stress have impaired recall of episodic memories
- cancer survivors show impaired semantic memory
91
PTSD
when a person who has experienced an extremely traumatic event and relives the event over and over again
-prior stressful experience increases chances of developing it
92
stressful emotions may ____ the encoding of information and ______ the retrieval of emotional memories
enhance
| impair
93
Flashbulb memory
a vivid memory for an emotional event
- unexpected and important
- caused by strong emotion
- tend to be associated with negative events
- not as accurate as they seem
- "remembered it like it happened yesterday"
94
Study: victims of 9/11 were tested after one week, 11 months and 35 months after attack
- despite high ratings of confidence for their memories, victims did not give consistent ratings across different time
- the recollection of the details itself (non emotional content) were recalled more consistently than the emotions themselves
95
Forgetting
-the weakening or loss of memories over time
96
Interference
-disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall
97
What are the different types of interference
Retroactive interference and Proactive interference
98
Retroactive interference
when new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences/information
ex- recall of crime by eyewitness, even if testimony is given only minutes after event, it will still be distorted by events that happened after crime
99
Proactive interference
when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information
- learning something that contradicts what you have been taught your whole life
- serial position effect
100
What are the two categories that illustrate the imperfections of memory
1) Errors of Omission
| 2) Errors of Commission
101
Errors of Omission
Transcience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
all forms of forgetfulness
102
Transcience
most common type of forgetting
-the loss of information over time
-also called decay
"forgetting curve"- each passing day, remember a little less, seeing list 3 times as opposed to once helped recall a little
103
Absent mindedness
- results from not paying attention
- happens when we multitask
- increases with age, not a big problem until 70's
-cant remember where keys are, look for 10 min, they're in the door
104
Blocking
the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored
- ex- forgetting a name or #
- on the "tip of the tongue"- can almost recall it but not quite
105
Repression
another form of blocking
-retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited
ex- traumatic memories
106
Errors of Commission
- Misattribution
- Consistency bias
- Persistence
- Suggestibility
107
Misattribution
assigning memory to the wrong source
ex: cryptomnesia- when a person accidentally plagiarizes someone else's ideas
- unconscious
108
Consistency bias
selective recall of past events to fit our current beliefs
- when we rewrite our memories based on what we now know and believe
- revisions tells us more about who we are now
ex- people asked to recall political views 10 years ago, more consistent with current beliefs
109
Persistence
the repeated recall of pleasant or unpleasant experiences even when we actively try to forget them
- memories created with strongly felt emotions
- extreme form is PTSD
110
Suggestibility
- when memories are altered in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else
- unconscious
- big part in law, evidence from eye witnesses can be altered by how police word their questions
111
Study: people watched vid of staged car accident.
Estimated higher speeds when asked "How fast when they SMASHED into each other" rather then "how fast when they HIT each other"
1st question- more likely to report seeing broken glass
112
False memories
memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone or something
- not a lie
- person develops actual memory based on false information
- vulnerability to false memories even stronger when using emotionally negative images compared to positive ones
- visual imagery boosts likelihood of false memories
113
Eye witness memory
- not very accurate
| - susceptible to suggestion in the interval between experience and recall
114
Study: watched vid and answered questions. some contained direct misleading suggestions about the event they witnessed, ex- what they were wearing
after answering questions, asked to recall specific details about the event they saw
-participants likely to incorporate the misleading suggestions (wrong clothing) into memory and elaborate
115
Misinformation effect
alteration of memory by misleading information presented between encoding and recall
116
Study: investigated recall of hospital emergency room visits by children of different ages
- young children (2-4) who were highly distressed had poorer recall about details of their injury compared to older children
- effect was not found if children had low levels of stress regarding their experience
117
recovered memory
a memory that was encoded and stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time until later events bring it back to consciousness
- controversial
- sometimes triggered when under care by psychotherapist
- not clear whether memory came on its own or psychotherapist gave unprofessional suggestions that forced them to recover it
118
Biology
foundation of all learning and memory
119
Hebb's Theory of Memory storage in neurons
1) When one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron, there is a temporary memory trace across the synapse between the neurons for a short time
2) If this memory trace persists, it is followed by a permanent change in the receiving neuron, the excitatory neuron, or both -> strengthens the synaptic connection
- use it or lose it
- neurons that fire together, wire together
-repeated stimulation of a group of neutrons leads to the formation of cell assemblies
120
cell assemblies
networks of neurons that persist even after stimulation has stopped
121
Possible mechanisms of Hebb's theory
- neurogensis
- formation of new synapses
- rearrangement of synaptic inputs
- dendrite growth
- long term potentiation (LTP)
122
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
strengthening of a synaptic connection when one neutron repeatedly fires and excites another neutron
- occurs in brain regions involved in memory
- blocking glutamate prevents LTP and interferes with memory
123
Eric Kandel and his sea slugs
- sea slugs have few neurons
- shock sea slug-> defensive response for 10 min
- shock 4 or 5 times in succession -> exhibited same defensive response days later
- sea slug created long term memory on how to react to a shock
*conversion from short term to long term memory storage requires spaced repetition*
124
Explain the effect of repeated stimulation of a neuron
- repeated stimulation of neuron sends signals to nucleus of cell, where DNA is
- these signals trigger production of CREB, a protein that turns on genes responsible for the development of new synapses
- repetition brings growth of new synapses, stabilizes new memory
125
Sensory info travels to the _______ and then gets directed to specific ______
thalamus
| cortical areas
126
Vision
transferred to occipital lobe
127
Hearing
temporal lobe
128
Touch
parietal lobe
129
Taste
Frontal and temporal lobes
130
Smell
can bypass the thalamus, go straight to olfactory bulb
131
Working memory ______ localized to one area
is not
132
Prefrontal cortex
- activated in working memory
- determines what info in the environment is worthy of attention
- directs attention
133
Hippocampus
- activated by encoding stage of memory
- where memory is consolidated, may take hours, days, weeks
- where conversion of a short term to long term memory occurs
134
Specific cortical areas, specific tasks
Auditory info -> processed and rehearsed by phonological loop from prefrontal cortex to the language comprehension centre in rear left parietal lobe
Visual info -> visuospatial sketch pad from prefrontal cortex to temporal lobes-> occipital lobes
Temporal lobe is critical in the ability to encode explicit, episodic memories long term
135
Explicit long term memories
-stored in cortex where original sensation was processed
136
Implicit long term memories
-stored in subcortex -> striatum (part of basal ganglia) amygdala and cerebellum
137
Tasks that require memory for precise movements
involve cerebellum
| - cerebellum of piano player is bigger than that of someone who doesn't play
138
Emotion acts as a ________
memory booster
139
People with damage to amygdala
do not display memory boost from emotions
- do not recall emotional events better than non-emotional events
- amygdala impairs memories for overall feelings, not for details
- emotion is gone, details is still there
140
Amygdala gives _______
emotional significance to events
- especially negative and fearful ones
- phobias
141
Emotion ____ enhance memory
can
-amygdala blocks enhanced memory for emotional details
amygdala activation correlated with emotionally distressing videos
142
amnesia
-when people forget due to injury or disease
143
What are the two types of amnesia
1) Anterograde
2) Retrograde
can have one or the other, rarely have both -> if you do serious brain damage
144
Anterograde amnesia
-the inability to remember events and experiences that occur AFTER an injury or onset of disease
145
Retrograde amnesia
the inability to remember events or experiences that happened BEFORE the injury or onset of disease
146
Alzheimers disease
can't remember new info initially, eventually forget past. get to a point where you don't remember anything, can't form new memories
-both transience and absent mindedness are evident
147
Cause of alzheimers
abnormal accumulation of protein called beta-amyloid, which is toxic to neutrons that contain acetylcholine.
These cholinergic neurons send their axon terminals to memory regions such as hippocampus and cortex
148
Korsakoff syndrome
- drink a lot of alcohol-> suppress B vitamins (B for brain)
- All B vitamins essential to nervous system
- when you drink you flush out thiamine (B1)
- do this chronically, you have chronic depletion of b vitamins
- B1 Thiamine causes a form of dementia- alcohol dementia
Psych 1021
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