Chapter 7

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

• the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
• based on experience, produces changes in the organism, these changes are relatively permanent

Question 2

habituation

Answer 2

a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

Question 3

sensitization

Answer 3

a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

Question 4

classical conditioning

Answer 4

• a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
• foundation for a model for human behavior
• can involve some degree of cognition

Question 5

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 5

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Question 6

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 6

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

Question 7

Pavlov’s experiments

Answer 7

• involved cradling dogs in a harness to administer food and measure their salivary response
• study of classical conditioning

Question 8

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 8

a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

Question 9

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 9

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

Question 10

acquisition

Answer 10

the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together

Question 11

second-order conditioning

Answer 11

conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

Question 12

extinction

Answer 12

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

Question 13

spontaneous recovery

Answer 13

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Question 14

generalization

Answer 14

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition

Question 15

discrimination

Answer 15

the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Question 16

biological preparedness

Answer 16

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

Question 17

cerebellum plays an important role in _____________, whereas the amygdala is important for ______________.

Answer 17

1. Eyeblink conditioning

2. Fear conditioning

Question 18

evolutionary aspects of classical conditioning

Answer 18

• each species is biologically predisposed to acquire particular CS-US associations
• has adaptive value

Question 19

operant conditioning

Answer 19

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

• complex behaviors are shaped through reinforcement
• contingencies between actions and outcomes are critical in determining how an organism’s behaviors will be displayed

Question 20

Law of Effect

Answer 20

behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated

Question 21

operant behavior

Answer 21

behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

Question 22

reinforcer

Answer 22

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

• primary reinforcers help satisfy biological needs (ex. food, comfort, shelter, warmth)
• secondary reinforcers derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning (ex. flashing lights become associated with a speeding ticket and a fine)

Question 23

punisher

Answer 23

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

Question 24

fixed-interval schedule (FI)

Answer 24

an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made
(ex. kids cram for exams only as time for exam comes up)

Question 25

variable-interval schedule (VI)

Answer 25

an operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement (ex. promotions/giveaways on radio stations)

Question 26

fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

Answer 26

an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made (ex. one schedule occurs after every 4th response)

Question 27

variable-ratio schedule (VR)

Answer 27

an operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses (ex. slot machines are determined by random number generator)

Question 28

intermittent reinforcement

Answer 28

an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

Question 29

intermittent reinforcement effect

Answer 29

the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

Question 30

shaping

Answer 30

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

Question 31

latent learning

Answer 31

something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

Question 32

cognitive map

Answer 32

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment

Question 33

major pleasure centers in the brain

Answer 33

nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and hypothalamus

Question 34

observational learning

Answer 34

a condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others - based on cognitive mechanisms (attention, perception, memory, reasoning) - activates mirror neuron system

Question 35

diffusion chain

Answer 35

a process in which individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior

Question 36

implicit learning

Answer 36

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition (ex. habituation, driving a car) - explicit learning can become implicit but both use distinct neural pathways

Question 37

Implicit vs Explicit learning

Answer 37

- there are fewer individual differences in implicit learning - psychotic and amnesic patients with explicit learning problems can exhibit intact implicit learning - neuroimaging studies show that implicit and explicit learning recruit distinct brain structures

Question 38

In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a. a neutral stimulus b. a conditioned response c. an unconditioned response d. another conditioned stimulus

Answer 38

b. a conditioned response

Question 39

What occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus? a. generalization b. spontaneous recovery c. extinction d. acquisition

Answer 39

c. extinction

Question 40

What did Watson and Rayner seek to demonstrate about behaviorism through the Little Albert experiment? a. conditioning involves a degree of cognition b. classical conditioning has an evolutionary component c. behaviorism alone cannot explain human behavior d. even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning

Answer 40

d. even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning

Question 41

Which part of the brain is involved in the classical conditioning of fear? a. the amygdala b. the cerebellum c. the hippocampus d. the hypothalamus

Answer 41

a. the amygdala

Question 42

After having a bad experience with a particular type of food, people can develop a lifelong aversion to the food. This suggests that conditioning has a(n) ____ aspect. a. cognitive b. evolutionary c. neural d. behavioral

Answer 42

b. evolutionary

Question 43

Which of the following is NOT an accurate statement concerning operant conditioning? a. actions and outcomes are critical to operant conditioning b. operant conditioning involves the reinforcement of behavior c. complex behaviors cannot be accounted for by operant conditioning d. operant conditioning has associative mechanisms with roots in evolutionary behavior

Answer 43

c. complex behaviors cannot be accounted for by operant conditioning

Question 44

Which of the following mechanisms have no role in Skinner's approach to behavior? a. cognitive b. neural c. evolutionary d. all of the above

Answer 44

d. all of the above

Question 45

Latent learning provides evidence for a cognitive element in operant conditioning because a. it occurs without any obvious reinforcement b. it requires both positive and negative reinforcement c. it points toward the operation of a neural reward center d. it depends on a stimulus-response relationship

Answer 45

a. it occurs without any obvious reinforcement

Question 46

Activity of neurons in the _____ contributes to the process of reinforcement. a. hippocampus b. pituitary gland c. medial forebrain bundle d. parietal lobe

Answer 46

c. medial forebrain bundle

Question 47

Which of the following mechanisms does NOT help form the basis of observational learning? a. attention b. perception c. punishment d. memory

Answer 47

c. punishment

Question 48

Neural research indicates that observational learning is closely tied to brain areas that are involved in a. memory b. vision c. action d. emotion

Answer 48

c. action

Question 49

What kind of learning takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition? a. latent learning b. implicit learning c. observational learning d. conscious learning

Answer 49

b. implicit learning

Question 50

The process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding is called a. habituation b. explicit learning c. serial reaction time d. delay conditioning

Answer 50

a. habituation

Question 51

Which of the following statements about implicit learning is inaccurate? a. Some forms of learning start out explicitly but become more implicit over time. b. Implicit learning occurs even in the simplest of organisms. c. People with high scores on intelligence tests are more adept at implicit learning tasks. d. Children learn language and social conduct largely through implicit learning.

Answer 51

c. People with high scores on intelligence tests are more adept at implicit learning tasks.

Question 52

Responding to implicit instructions results in decreased brain activation in which part of the brain? a. the hippocampus b. the parietal cortex c. the prefrontal cortex d. the occipital region

Answer 52

d. the occipital region

Question 53

Which study strategy has been shown to be the most effective? a. highlighting text b. rereading c. summarizing d. taking practice tests

Answer 53

d. taking practice tests