Define observation
This is the act of noticing a phenomenon and recording it for scientific purposes.
What are the types of (ethnographic) observational research?
- Complete observer - completely isolated from the setting, not noticed by participants.
- Observer-as-participant - Observes group for short periods of time, people are aware of their presence.
- Participant-as-observer- researcher is fully integrated into the setting as part of the process, also noticed by others.
- Complete participant- researcher completely disappears into the setting and is fully engaged with participants and activities. AKA “Going native”. Not as concerned on research agenda.
Define ethnographic observation
This is the process of observing in a naturalistic setting.
Different types of membership:
- Peripheral membership- researcher observes and interact directly, however does not participate.
- Active membership- researcher participates in key activities, refrains from displaying values, goals, and attitudes.
- Complete membership- researcher is active and engaged as a member of the group- adopts views of the group.
Define reliability
The measurement of consistency between observations and that the observation is not the result of random chance.
Define validity
The measure of the accuracy of the observation - did the observation demonstrate what it appears to demonstrate?
Ethnographic research poses challenges when ensuring reliability as observations are not fully reproducible, what can researchers to do improve this?
- Multiple observers or teams- having a variety of viewpoints can help improve any inaccuracies between observers.
- Analytical induction- this is the search for negative cases for the propositions found. When there are no negative cases, the proposition can be found to be universal.
- Verisimilitude Techniques- a writing technique where the language is so rich that the reader recognizes things from their own experiences.
The quality of conclusions from observational research can be determined by assessing:
- Objectivity - the degree to which the conclusions flow from the information collected, ensuring there are no biases from the researcher.
- Reliability - Ensuring the process of research has been consistent between researchers and reasonably stable overtime
- Internal validity - ensuring the conclusion of the study makes sense in the context of the study and that the parties involved are credible.
- External validity - the degree to which the conclusion is relevant to matters beyond the study.
- Utilization/application - this is the extent of programs or actions which result from the studies findings and/or the ethical issues which are dealt with.
What are the 3 ways of minimizing observer bias?
- Ensuring observation is as natural as possible.
- Making sure the research is emergent, that there is room for creativity.
- Triangulation–> this is combining the research with other techniques for the collection of information.
What are some ethical concerns with observational research? (2)
- It is unethical to deliberately misrepresent the researchers identity for the purpose of entering a private domain where they are not eligible.
- It is unethical for the researcher to deliberately misrepresent the motive of the research that is being done.
