chapter seven

Question 1

encoding

Answer 1

the acquisition and transfer of information into long term memory

Question 2

elaborative rehearsal

Answer 2

• processing information based on meaning or connections to other information
• leads to encoding

Question 3

maintenance rehearsal (rote rehearsal)

Answer 3

• silent repetition to oneself
• often used to keep information in short term memory
• not effective at encoding

Question 4

level of processing theory

Answer 4

• craik and lockhart
• proposed that the extent of processing an item (depth of processing) will determine its likelihood of being remembered

Question 5

levels of processing

Answer 5

• shallow
• intermediate
• deep

Question 6

shallow (levels of processing)

Answer 6

• involves physical characteristics
• i.e. the appearance of a word
• decay is fast

Question 7

intermediate (levels of processing)

Answer 7

• phonemic (sound of words) features
• i.e. how a word sounds/rhymes with another word
• decay is intermediate

Question 8

deep (levels of processing)

Answer 8

• semantic meanings of the information
• i.e. is the word a type of animal? food?
• decay is slow

Question 9

bower and winzenz (levels of processing theory)

Answer 9

• found that visualizing an image of paired associates results in better recall than rote rehearsal

Question 10

leshikar et al. (levels of processing theory)

Answer 10

• found a self-reference effect which is:
• recalling words that one judged as a description of theirselves or not was better than when it was judged as a common/uncommon word

Question 11

slameka and graf

Answer 11

• found a generation effect where:
• participants are better to recall word pairs if they generated the second word in the pair than merely reading pre-generated word pairs

Question 12

retrieval cue

Answer 12

• a stimulus that helps one recall information
• i.e. the word “doctor” can help cue the retrieval of a related word such as “nurse”

Question 13

organized information in retrieval…

Answer 13

• helps facilitate recall in long term memory
• i.e. tables, graphs, flow charts

Question 14

testing effect (retrieval)

Answer 14

• karpick and roediger
• found that routine testing results in better performance
• i.e. regularly quizzing yourself on material you’ve already learned

Question 15

6 steps on effective studying

Answer 15

1. elaborate
2. generate and test
3. organize
4. take breaks
5. avoid “illusions of learning”
6. long-hand-note taking is superior to laptop note taking

Question 16

spacing effect

Answer 16

better memory when studying during short sessions rather than cramming

Question 17

illusions of learning

Answer 17

• ease of reading does not mean better memory for the material
• familiarity effect: recognition of material does not mean comprehension of it
• highlighting text: no difference in memory for people who highlight and people who don’t

Question 18

free recall

Answer 18

participants recall information

Question 19

cued recall

Answer 19

• participants are provided with retrieval cues to help with recall
• better performance than free recall

Question 20

principle of encoding specificity

Answer 20

• successful retrieval depends on how much the conditions at encoding match the conditions at retrieval
• i.e. listening to classical music studying vs. during the text = better recall

Question 21

transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 21

• successful task performance is dependent on whether the cognitive processes during encoding is transferred to the retrieval stage, and is appropriate for the current responding
• i.e. studying words by looking at pictures that represent them and then being asked to remember the words on a test by being shown just the pictures

Question 22

consolidation

Answer 22

process of making memories resistant to disruption (forgetting)

Question 23

synaptic consolidation

Answer 23

• process of strengthening connections between neurons after learning, helping to stabilize new memories quickly
• leads to long term potentiation (LTP)

Question 24

long term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 24

the strengthening of synaptic transmission

Question 25

systems consolidation

Answer 25

neural circuits involving the hippocampus and cortex are reorganized over months to years

Question 26

hebb (synaptic consolidation)

Answer 26

- proposed that synaptic changes reflect learning and memory - experiences change synaptic structure, neural firing rate, and the amount of NTs released

Question 27

two models that describe systems consolidation

Answer 27

- standard model of consolidation (earlier) - multiple trace model of consolidation

Question 28

standard model of consolidation

Answer 28

- there is a weakening of connections, they disappear, which means the ones left get stronger - link to graded amnesia

Question 29

graded amnesia

Answer 29

memory loss where recent memories are more likely to be forgotten than older ones after an injury or trauma because older memories have had more time to strengthen their cortical connections making them more resistant to disruption

Question 30

multiple trace model of consolidation

Answer 30

- emphasizes that memories are created and stored as multiple traces that can change over time, rather than fixed in one location - when you recall a memory, you create a new version of it, which helps explain why they're flexible/can be inacurate

Question 31

gilboa et al. (consolidation)

Answer 31

- found brain activity in the hippocampus when retrieving recent and remote episodic memories - remote (long-term) memories more strongly associated with prefrontal cortex than recent memories

Question 32

consolidation and sleep

Answer 32

- gais et al. proposed sleep enhances consolidiation - paired associated: english-german words - sleep condition: slept within 3 hours of studying - awake condition: stayed awake for 10 hours after studying - found that sleep enhances consolidation OR those in sleep condition experience less interference

Question 33

wilhelm et al. (consolidation)

Answer 33

- found that the expectation to recall information enhanced memory - experimented with matching pairs of cards - expected condition: told they would be tested on memorizing cards - unexpected condition: told they would be tested on another test - results showed that memories we consider important (expect to remember) are strengthened by consolidation

Question 34

reconsolidation

Answer 34

- memory is fragile after retrieval and thus, requires to be consolidated again - during reconsolidation, the memory can be modified or eliminated

Question 35

rat reconsolidation experiment

Answer 35

- researchers classical conditioned rats to associate a tone with a shock, making them create a fear memory - after the memory was formed, they replayed the tone to make sure the fear memory was recalled - when the memory was recalled, they injected rats with anisomycin (blocks protein synthesis which prevents reconsolidation) - when the tone was replayed again, rats did not freeze to the tone, showing that the memory was not reconsolidated properly after anisomycin injection