problems
- occur when there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state
- challenging since the solution is not immediately obvious
gestalt approach to problem solving
the likelihood of solving a problem is influenced by how the problem is represented in the mind
restructuring
changing how the problem is represented
insight
- the sudden realization of a problem’s solution
insight problem
problem solved suddenly
noninsight problem
problem is solved gradually
functional fixedness
- continuing to think of an object’s use only in its intended way
- i.e. duncker’s candle and matchbox as a stand problem
mental set
- a predetermined idea about how to approach a problem based on one’s experience
- can be an obstacle to problem solving
newell and simon
proposes that problem solving involves moving through a problem space
problem space
- initial state
- intermediate state
- goal state
initial state
conditions at the start of a problem
intermediate state
conditions after an action is made toward the solution
goal state
the solution
operators
actions governed by rules that move the problem from one state to another
means-end analysis
strategy of eliminating differences between the initial state and goal state via subgoals
subgoals
intermediate states that get you closer to the goal
think-aloud protocol
procedure in which one verbalized what they are thinking as they are solving a problem
analogical problem-solving steps
- analogical encoding in which two problems are compared for similarities
- if a relation is noticed, one must map the corresponding parts of the target and source problem
- generate a solution that parallels the solution used for the source problem
analogical paradox
- people often fail to see the relation between analogous problems in the lab
- however, people often use analogies in real-world settings
experts are faster and more successful at problem solving than novices because
- greater knowledge
- the way they organize information
- spend more time analyzing the problem before attempting to solve
characteristics of creativity
- divergent thinking
- novel ideas
- useful ideas
four-stage process of creativity
- problem generation
- problem formulation
- problem solving
- solution implementation
smith, ward and shumacher
- people asked to draw a creature that might live on another planet
- one group not given any examples
- other group given pictures of possible examples
- results: group who was given examples drew similar examples
creative cognition (finke)
- given the parts
- not informed of the category
- asked to create the object (preinventive forms)
- provided with a category and asked to interpret their object
